Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 ii Published by The Department of Water and Sanitation Private Bag X313 Pretoria, 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: (012) 336 7500/ +27 12 336 7500 Fax: (012) 336 6731/ +27 12 336 6731 Copyright Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner without full acknowledgment of the source. This report should be cited as: Department of Water and Sanitation, 2025. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers. Report 2.1. Sources Directed Studies. Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122. Pretoria, South Africa Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 iii DOCUMENT INDEX REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR WATER RESOURCES REPORT SERIES REPORT TITLE DWS REPORT NUMBER 1. Project Planning Reports 1.1 Project Plan RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0120 1.2 Gap Analysis Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0220 1.3 Framework Document RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDC/0121 1.4 ToR for PSC members RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0221 1.5 Inception Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0321 1.6 Situation Assessment Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 2. Development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines 2.1 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 2.2 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0222 2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0123 2.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0223 2.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater resources RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0323 3. Implementation Report 3.1 Guidelines into Practice RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0423 4. Project Administration Reports 4.1 Project Close-out Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0525 4.1.1 Capacity Building 4.1.2 Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 iv DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL Authors: Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane, Dr Mampolelo Photolo, Ms Mmaphefo Thwala, Mr Samkele Mnyango, Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Contributors: Sub-Technical Task Team, Technical Task Team, Project Management Committee, and Project Steering Committee Specialist Reviewers: Dr Chantel Petersen, Dr Steven Mathetsa and Dr Christa Thirion Project Name: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 Report Version: Version 4.3 Date: August 2025 _________________________________________________________________________________ Department of Water and Sanitation Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Compiled by: ..................................................... Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane (Project Manager) Approved for DWS by: .................................................... Director: Sources Directed Studies Ms Tovhowani Nyamande (Project Leader) .................................................... Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Ms Ndileka Mohapi Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DWS Project Administration Committee (PAC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager DWS Sub- Technical Task Team (Sub-TT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Naomi Fourie Scientific Manager: Compliance Monitoring - Afforestation Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member DWS Technical Task Team (TTT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 vi Ms Naomi Fourie Scientific Manager: Compliance Monitoring - Afforestation Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member DWS Project Management Committee (PMC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Chairperson Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 vii Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Naomi Fourie Scientific Manager: Compliance Monitoring - Afforestation Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 viii Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Project Steering Committee Members (PSC) DWS Representatives Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Chairperson Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Barbara Weston Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Yakeen Atwaru Director: Reserve Determination Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Lebogang Matlala Director: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Anet Muir Director: Bulk Potable Water Pricing Regulation Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 ix Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Christa Thirion Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing: Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager: Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management: Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Melissa Lintnaar-Strauss Scientist Manager: Western Cape Regional Office Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment: Northern Cape Member Water Sector Representatives Dr Andrew Wood Principal Scientist: SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd Member Mr Lehlohonolo Phadima General Manager: Scientific Services: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Ms Thembisa Torch Assistant Director: DWS: Berg-Olifants Proto- CMA Member Dr Eddie Riddell Water Resources Manager: South African National Parks Member Mr Ntsikelelo Wiseman Dlulane Acting Chief Executive Officer: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Phil McLean Task Manager: Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Pollution and Chemicals Directorate Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 x Mr Stanley Tshitwamulomoni Director: Water Sources and Wetlands Conservation Member Dr Dhiraj Rama Executive Director: Association of Cementitious Material Producers (ACMP) Member Mr Kobus Fell Advisor: National Water Monitor Non-Profit Company Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Donovan Gillman President: Institute for Landscape Architecture in South Africa Member Mr Reginald Mabalane Policy Analyst: Mineral Council of South Africa Member Ms Busisiwe Mahlangu Control Environmental Officer: Inkomati-Usuthu Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Sihle Ximba Acting Water Care Manager: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Bonani Madikizela Research Manager: Water Research Commission Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Hermien Oberholzer Senior Principal Engineer: Anglo American Platinum Member Ms Stephinah Mudau Head Environment: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Mr Matome Makwela Senior Policy Analyst: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Ms Jenifer Zungu Project Leader: South African National Biodiversity Institute Member Mr Douglas Macfarlane Chief Scientist: Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services Member Mr Andre Beegte Implementation Manager – Wetlands: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Debbie Muir Biodiversity Officer Control: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment, Branch Environmental Programmes. Member Ms Kate Snaddon Senior Consultant: Freshwater Consulting Member Dr Yolandi Schoeman Postdoctoral Scientist and Ecological Engineer: University of the Free State Member Dr Chantel Petersen Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Dr Vhahangwele Masindi Research and Development Manager: Magalies Water Member Ms Kim Hodgson Scientist – Water Quality Management: Umgeni Water Member Ms Lilian Siwelane Control Environmental Officer: DWS: North West, Institutional Management Member Mr Mashudu Rafundisani Senior Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Mpho Zwane Senior Specialist - Water Quality Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Esmeralda Ramburran Deputy Director - Operational Support and Planning: Department of Forestry Fisheries and the Environment Member Mr Norman Nokeri Manager - Strategy and Planning: Lepelle Northern Water Member Mr Pule Makena Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xi Mr Reveck Hariram Senior Water Quality Advisor: Rand Water Member Mr Theolin Naidoo Senior Scientist: Institute of Natural Resources NPC Member Mr Wiseman Ndlala Senior Specialist - Water Quality and Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Member Mr Roger Bills Senior Curator: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) Member Mr Fazel Sheriff Chief Engineer: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Mr Themba Dladla Provincial Programme Manager: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Dr Kobus Du Plessis Managing Director: Envirokonsult Scientific Services (Pty) Ltd Member Ms Mulalo Sundani Environmental Impact Management: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) Member Dr Elizabeth Day Director: Liz Day Consulting (Pty) Ltd Member Dr Heidi van Deventer Principal Researcher: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Member Mr Lubabalo Luyaba Specialist – Water and Sanitation: South African Local Government Association Member Mr Vhangani Silima Coordinator Environmental Rehabilitation: Rand Water Member Ms Phumelele Sokhulu Environmental Officer: Umgeni Member Mr Robert Siebritz Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Mr Eddy Tshabalala Control Environmental Officer: Sedibeng District Municipality Member Mr Rodney February MEL Coordinator: World Wide Fund for Nature Member Mr Ruwen Pillay Control Environmental Officer: Estuaries Management: DFFE Member Ms Yolokazi Galada Control Environmental Officer: DFFE Member Mr Stephen Midzi Manager: Biodiversity Conservation SANParks Member Dr Thakane Ntholi Manager: Water and Environment: Council for Geoscience Member Internal Specialist Reviewers Dr Christa Thirion Scientific Manager: DWS External Specialist Reviewers Dr Chantel Petersen Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Dr Steven Mathetsa Senior Lecturer: University of Witwatersrand Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xii LIST OF ACRONYMS AMD AIS BEI BMGs CARA CD: WEM CMA CECs DALRRD DCOGTA DEA DEA&DP DEDTEA DFFE DO DWAF DWS ECA EcoRA EDCs EIA EP EPA ELU EWRs GBF GHS GIS HCA HHPs HAS PES SES SDS IPCC IWQM IWRM WRC M & E Acid Mine Drainage Alien Invasive Species Body Exposure Indices Best Management Practices Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Catchment Management Agency Contaminants of Emerging Concern Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment Dissolved Oxygen Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Department of Water and Sanitation Environment Conservation Act Ecological Risk Assessment Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Environmental impact Assessment Environmental Programme Environmental Protection Agency Existing Lawful Use Ecological Water Requirements Global Biodiversity Framework Globally Harmonised System Geographic Information System Hazardous Chemical Agents Highly Hazardous Pesticides Hazardous Substances Act Present Ecological State Social-Ecological System Directorate: Sources Directed Studies Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Integrated Water Quality Management Integrated Water Resource Management Water Research Commission Monitoring and Evaluation MPRDA Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act NEMA NEM: BA NEM: WA NEM: PAA National Environmental Management Act National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act National Environmental Management: Waste Act National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act NHRA NTAs National Heritage Resources Act Nitrilotriacetic Acids NWA National Water Act NWRS National Water Resource Strategy NW&SMP OEL OHS OTC National Water and Sanitation Master Plan Operator Exposure Level Occupational Health and Safety Over-the-Counter Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xiii PAHs PFAS PPE PES RAM RQOs Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Personal Protective Equipment Present Ecological State Risk Assessment Matrix Resource Quality Objectives RDM RWQOs SANBI SANRAL SWSAs SFR SDGs Resource Directed Measures Resource Water Quality Objectives South African National Biodiversity Institute South African National Roads Agency SOC Ltd Strategic Water Source Areas Streamflow reduction Sustainable Development Goals SDCs WDCS WML WULA WUL Sources Directed Controls Waste Discharge Charge System Waste Management License Water Use License Application Water Use License WWTWs Wastewater Treatment Works Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xiv GLOSSARY OF TERMS In terms of the definition contained within the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), a watercourse means: • A river or spring; • A natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; • A wetland, dam, or lake into which, or from which, water flows; and • Any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse; and • A reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks. Catchment in relation to a watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, is defined as the geographical area from which any rainfall will drain into the watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, through surface flow to a common point or common points. This land area from which a river or reservoir is fed is also known as a drainage region, basin, or watershed. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plants and some microorganisms (e.g., cyanobacteria) that play an important role in the conversion of solar energy to chemical energy through a process known as photosynthesis. All oxygenic photosynthetic organisms use chlorophyll-α, which contributes to the green colour of most plants and algae, but differ in accessory pigments like chlorophyll-β. Diffuse pollution - (or “non-point source pollution”) Pollution that originates from wash- off over a relatively large area. Diffuse pollution sources can be divided into source activities related to either land or water use, including failing septic tanks, agricultural and improper animal-keeping practices, and urban and rural runoff. Ecological Water Releases pertaining to specific low and high flows for maintaining ecological conditions within a specific ecological category, in the form of assurance rules for each selected EWR site. Ecological Risk Assessment (EcoRA) involves the assessment of the risks posed by the presence of substances released to the environment by man, in theory, on all living organisms in the variety of ecosystems which make up the environment. Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) is the flow patterns (magnitude, timing, and duration) and water quality needed to maintain a riverine ecosystem in a particular condition. This term is used to refer to both the quantity and quality components. Effluent is the municipal sewage or industrial wastewater (untreated, partially treated, or fully treated) that flows out of a wastewater treatment works, septic system, pipe, etc. Eutrophic is a state of an aquatic ecosystem rich in minerals and nutrients, very productive in terms of aquatic plant life and exhibiting increasing signs of water quality problems. Eutrophication - (from the Greek “eutrophos” meaning "well-nourished") Is the process of over-enrichment of waterbodies with minerals and nutrients, which (at the right temperatures, substrate availability, flow velocity and light penetration) increasingly induce primary production, e.g., algal and macrophyte growth. Eutrophication can be regarded as either a natural aging process in waterbodies or an aging process that can be accelerated by anthropogenic activities. Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets (i.e., GBF Goal A target 2 for restoration of ecosystems). Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xv Hazard class is the nature of a physical, health or environmental hazard under the GHS. Highly Hazardous Pesticide (HHP’s) are pesticides that are acknowledged to present particularly high levels of acute or chronic hazards to health or environment according to internationally accepted classification systems such as WHO or Global Harmonized System (GHS). Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. IWRM takes into account the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. Mean annual runoff is the average volume of water that flows in a river per year (annum), expressed as cubic meters per annum. Monitoring - periodic or continuous surveillance or testing to determine the level of compliance with statutory requirements and/or pollutant levels in various media or in humans, plants, and animals. Non-point source pollution - See “Diffuse pollution.” Occupational exposure limit is the limit value set by the Minister, which represents the airborne concentration of a pesticide, where the exposure standard can be, a) an eight-hour time-weighted average, b) a ceiling limit, c) a short-term exposure limit. National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPAs) form part of a comprehensive approach to sustainable and equitable development of South Africa’s scarce water resources. For integrated water resources planning, NFEPA provides guidance on how many rivers, wetlands and estuaries, and which ones, should remain in a natural or near-natural condition to support the water resource protection goals of the National Water Act. Present Ecological State (PES) is a term used to describe the ecological condition of the resource. The PES of a river is expressed in terms of the drivers (physico-chemical, geomorphology, hydrology) and biological responses (fish, riparian vegetation and aquatic invertebrates). Point source pollution - pollutant loads discharged at a specific location by means of pipes, outfalls, or conveyance channels inter alia delivering wastewater from municipal and industrial Wastewater Treatment Works. Point sources can also include pollutant loads contributed by tributary. Reference State is the natural or pre-impacted condition of the system. Rehabilitation is the process of promoting the recovery of ecosystem functions and values in a degraded system to regain some of the values of the system previously had to society. Restoration refers to the manipulation of a site to revert the watercourse back to its full range of natural (historic) processes and functions. Restoration attempts to restore habitats back to their natural (historic also known as the Reference State) conditions. Rehabilitation and Restoration both aim for the same outcome, the return of the structure and function of a degraded ecosystem to the closest achievable approximation of its natural (pre-impact) state. Remediation refers to the improvement of the ecological condition of the ecosystem, while not aiming for an outcome which resembles its original condition. Resources Directed Measures (RDM) focus on the quantity and quality of the water resource itself, regarding it as an ecosystem rather than a commodity. RDMs comprise Classes, Reserve and RQOs as components. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xvi Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) are a numerical or descriptive (narrative) statement of the conditions which should be met in the receiving water resource, in terms of resource quality, in order to ensure that the water resource is protected. They might describe, amongst others, the quantity, pattern, and timing of instream flow; water quality; the character and condition of riparian habitat, and the characteristics and condition of the aquatic biota. Resource Water Quality Objective (RQOs) are the water quality component of the Resource Quality Objective. Are numeric and/or descriptive objectives, which address the physical, chemical and/or microbiological properties of waterbodies that should be met in receiving water resources to ensure that the water quality requirements of the recognised water users and the aquatic ecosystem are sufficiently protected. Resource Water Quality Objectives are not gazetted, per se. River Eco-status Monitoring Programme (REMP) is a programme for monitoring the ecological conditions of the river ecosystems based on the drivers and responses in the river. REMP is aimed to establish the reference condition (usually a natural or close to natural condition) of the river or reach that will used to assess the temporal conditions of that river or reach with the consideration of both the biotic (instream and riparian biota) and abiotic (hydrology, geomorphology, and physico- chemical conditions) factors of that river. Runoff is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. Surface runoff replenishes groundwater and surface water resources as it percolates through soil profiles or moves into streams and rivers. Social-Ecological System (SES) are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). Source: In water resource management, “source” refers to the source of an impact, usually on a water resource. The relationship between “Source” and “Resource” is similar to the relationships between “Cause” and “Effect” or “Aspect” and “Impact,” as per the ISO 14001 definitions. The “Resource” or the “water resource” is part of the receiving environment. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) are formally defined as natural source areas for water that supply disproportionately large volumes of water per unit area and that are considered of strategic significance for water security from a national planning perspective. Water from SWSAs feeds major dams and can be considered ecological infrastructure that works hand in hand with built infrastructure for delivering water. Trophic status refers to the degree of nutrient enrichment of surface water resources and the associated amount of primary productivity that can be sustained. Wastewater is any water used from domestic, industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, which may contain physical, chemical, and biological pollutants. Water quality - the biological, chemical, and physical conditions of a waterbody. It is a measure of a waterbody's ability to support beneficial water use. Weirs, also known as low-head dams, are small overflow-type dams commonly used to raise the level of a river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir, although some weirs have sluice gates, which release water at a level below the top of the weir. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xvii CONTENTS DOCUMENT INDEX ..........................................................................................................................................III DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL .......................................................................................................................... IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... V LIST OF ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... XII GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................................................... XIV CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................. XVII LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... XVIII LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................... XVIII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. XX 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 REHABILITATION CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS .................................................................................... 2 1.3 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR RIVERS ........ 3 1.4 DEFINITION OF WATERCOURSES ........................................................................................................... 4 1.5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES ...................................... 4 1.5.1 Guiding Principles .......................................................................................................................................... 4 1.5.2 Approach ....................................................................................................................................................... 6 1.6 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................ 7 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................... 7 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................................................ 7 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................................... 7 2.2 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PRINCIPLES ..................................................................... 11 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ................................................................................................. 12 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ................................................................ 12 3.2 LINK BETWEEN WATER RESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ............................. 13 4. WATER RESOURCE IMPACTS ...................................................................................................................... 14 4.1 RIVER ECOSYSTEM STATUS AND DEGRADATION IMPACTS ................................................................. 14 5. GUIDELINES FOR RIVERS AND ASSOCIATED CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ............................. 15 5.1 HYDROLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 15 5.1.1 Components of the Hydrological Cycle........................................................................................................ 16 5.1.2 Surface Flow/Runoff Impacts ...................................................................................................................... 17 5.1.3 Interflow Impacts ........................................................................................................................................ 18 5.1.4 Groundwater Flows ..................................................................................................................................... 20 5.1.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Interflow ................................................................................. 22 5.1.6 Special considerations to be applied for Rehabilitation of areas affected by Alien and Invasive Vegetation 29 5.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 29 5.2.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 29 5.2.2 Factors Influencing Fluvial Geomorphology ................................................................................................ 31 5.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology ...................................................................... 31 5.3 WATER QUALITY .................................................................................................................................. 36 5.3.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 36 5.3.2 Types of Water Quality Impacts .................................................................................................................. 36 5.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality .......................................................................... 38 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xviii 5.4 HABITAT .............................................................................................................................................. 52 5.4.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 52 5.4.2 Types of Habitat Impact .............................................................................................................................. 52 5.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat .................................................................................... 53 5.4.4 Special considerations to be applied for the Rehabilitation of Habitat ........................................................ 55 5.5 BIOTA .................................................................................................................................................. 55 5.5.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 55 5.5.2 Types of Biota Impacts ................................................................................................................................ 56 5.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota ........................................................................................ 57 5.5.4 Special considerations to be applied for Rehabilitation of Biota ................................................................. 61 6. REMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD ................................................................................................... 62 REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 64 APPENDICES................................................................................................................................................... 68 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: The distinction between rehabilitation (towards natural), restoration (the achievement of the natural or historical condition) and remediation (select mitigation of degradation) ................... 3 Figure 2: Guiding Rehabilitation Steps .................................................................................................. 5 Figure 3: The Ecological Water Requirements of the Reserve including drivers and responses Source: Beechie and Bolton, 1999 ..................................................................................................................... 13 Figure 4: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. .............................................................................................................................................................. 14 Figure 5: Schematic illustration of the three main broad categories of impacts on river systems ... 15 Figure 6: Illustration of the Hydrological cycle .................................................................................... 16 Figure 7: Components of the Hydrological Cycle ................................................................................ 16 Figure 8: Conceptual diagram for flow alteration ............................................................................... 17 Figure 9: Illustration of a Perched Aquifer and water table .............................................................. 19 Figure 10: Illustrative diagram depicting stream/river-aquifer interactions – (a) connected gaining stream (b) connected losing stream .................................................................................................... 21 Figure 11: Alien vegetation clearing and control methods adapted to align to NEM: BA and the EP Pesticides Policy ................................................................................................................................... 27 Figure 12: Simplified representation of the fluvial system and human interference ........................ 30 Figure 13: Methods used for the rehabilitation of culverts ................................................................ 33 Figure 14: Key landscape characteristics affecting water quality ...................................................... 37 Figure 15: Routes of sludge generation ............................................................................................... 42 Figure 16: The Faecal Sludge Management Service Chain .................................................................. 42 Figure 17: Sewage and faecal sludge techniques and treatment methods ....................................... 46 Figure 18: Passive Treatment Methods. .............................................................................................. 51 Figure 19: Active Treatment Methods. ................................................................................................ 51 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Approach for the development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Rivers including the associated characteristics of watercourses. .......................................................................................... 6 Table 2: Legislative Tools Applicable for River Rehabilitation.............................................................. 8 Table 3: Factors and Impacts affecting groundwater flow ................................................................. 20 Table 4: Geomorphological Characteristics of Rivers ......................................................................... 30 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xix Table 5: Direct and indirect methods and techniques for rehabilitation of erosion. ........................ 35 Table 6: Waste quantity, quality, surface, and groundwater monitoring. ........................................ 48 Table 7: Types of factors influencing the habitat. ............................................................................... 52 Table 8: Summary of human-induced disturbances on biota ............................................................. 56 Table 9: Inland and coastal migratory aquatic biota species. ............................................................ 58 Table 10: General hydraulics of a fishway. .......................................................................................... 59 Table 11: Key biological, ecological, and physical parameters prescribed for monitoring ............... 60 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xx EXECUTIVE SUMMARY There has been an increase in river rehabilitation interest and research efforts over the last two decades in South Africa by the Water Research Commission (WRC). To date, the WRC have developed and produced comprehensive River Rehabilitation Guidelines and manuals that are readily available for providing locally appropriate rehabilitation interventions which enable effective protection and management of our rivers systems. In 2020, the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) Directorate: Sources Directed Studies (SDS) initiated an in-house project for the development of the Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) for Water Resources in South Africa. The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystem Management to conduct sources directed studies. In the interest of efficiency, the DWS acknowledges all river rehabilitation work completed to date and is not duplicating efforts; however, the project aims to address the fragmentation of efforts across different projects, programmes, and initiatives due to separate mandates and various institutions responsible for this work. Most of the river programmes do not address all characteristics of watercourses. It is for this reason that the DWS is developing River RMGs to address characteristics of watercourses, namely surface flow, interflow, groundwater flows, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota through following a phased approach viz, diagnostic, planning, and assessment, setting of the rehabilitation objectives, execution, and monitoring phases. The following are key aspects covered to address the shortcomings of each characteristic of watercourses: • Description of the specific characteristics of watercourses; • Types of impacts for each characteristic of watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that give rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal Considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of a watercourse; and • Step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. Afforestation activities and Alien Invasive Species (AIS) vegetation clearing are the main impacts on interflow. Over-abstraction of groundwater within perched aquifers also impacts interflow, including the lowering of groundwater tables resulting in decoupling of the groundwater and surface water systems. Agriculture and associated agricultural pesticides, as well as river diversions are some of the other poor land management activities contributing to impacts on interflow. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for hydrology – surface flow and interflow have been developed with a focus on rehabilitation of afforestation activities and AIS vegetation clearing. Human interventions influence the modification of river systems. Activities such as scouring the channel bed deepens the channel. Other activities such as channel engineering, deforestation, AIS vegetation clearing, agriculture, and mining affect the flow of water and the production of sediment. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for geomorphology were developed and focused on rehabilitating improperly designed culverts and incised river channels. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xxi Water quality is affected by both point-source and non-point source pollution. Point source pollution emanates mainly from industries and Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs). Inadequately treated effluent from WWTWs poses a health risk to humans and the environment. Many chemicals and pesticides, transformation products, metabolites and residues are not included in the list of pollutants to be treated in WWTW effluent, but what is becoming an increasing concern is that Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) such as Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) and Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). Non-point source pollution is caused by activities such as irrigation, mining, agriculture, and urban development. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is one of the mining industry’s most severe and possibly enduring environmental issues. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed to address point and non-point source pollution affecting water resources. Anthropogenic activities have the potential to change river channel morphology by altering channel dimensions, and the discharge magnitude and frequency. These activities also affect bedload and can change channel gradient. Channelization is another factor that can directly alter effective channel gradients. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed for habitats with a focus on the rehabilitation of disturbed river channels. The existing instream barriers to migration in rivers/dams (weirs) is a major factor responsible for the reduction in numbers and range of many migratory fish and invertebrate species throughout South Africa. Most indigenous fish species undergo annual migrations within river systems to optimise feeding, promote dispersal, avoid unfavourable conditions and enhance reproductive success (WRC, 2007). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed for biota with specific reference to re-establishing species migratory routes. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND South Africa is a water-scarce country with a significant demand for its limited water resources. Key socio-economic sectors such as agricultural, industrial, mining, and land-based activities heavily depend on this scarce resource. Despite its role in these sectors, river ecosystem conditions declined by 11% between 1999 and 2011 thus limiting freshwater availability (SANBI, 2018). Of the 222 river ecosystem types assessed, 64% were found to be threatened (43% critically endangered, 19% endangered and 2% vulnerable) (SANBI, 2018). River ecosystem types are also poorly protected with only 13% considered well protected and 42% not protected (SANBI, 2018). Driver et al., (2004) also argued that impacts on rivers are not only a result of anthropogenic activities upstream and along riverbanks, but also due to the management issues related to land and water throughout the river catchment. To address the impacts of anthropogenic activities on South African river systems, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) within the DWS initiated an in-house project for the development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Resources (i.e., rivers). The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM), which is to conduct sources-directed studies to promote water resource protection. In the Situation Assessment Phase of the project, it was found that a great deal of research has been conducted in South Africa to understand the discipline of river rehabilitation and to provide locally and site-specific rehabilitation interventions. Below is a list of the main findings from the review conducted: • The Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation (WRC, 2016a) and Buffer Zone Guidelines for Rivers, Wetlands and Estuaries (WRC, 2017) are river rehabilitation guidelines currently in place to provide technical methods for undertaking rehabilitation activities. These guidelines provide overarching legislative framework to consider in the planning, designing, implementation and monitoring phases of rehabilitation interventions. • The Buffer Zone Guidelines do not take into consideration the hydrological functions of a river, which has a direct impact on rehabilitation. • Some several programmes and initiatives are currently in place to ensure natural river rehabilitation improvement and management. The impacts on rivers were also clearly identified and contextualised for each of the studies reviewed. A range of management options have been implemented to address the various impacts identified. The Situation Assessment Phase concluded that the existing guidelines, manuals, or best practices suffice in the protection and management of rivers, with the main gaps identified below. • Most of the river programmes do not address all characteristics of watercourses namely surface flow, interflow, groundwater flow, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota. • Efforts across different departments, projects, programmes, and initiatives are fragmented due to separate mandates and various institutions conducting rehabilitation work. • Rehabilitation initiatives were conducted, and challenges were experienced with the interpretation of the legislation and compliance and enforcement, which are inconsistent within the various branches of the authorising agencies. It is not always possible to obtain consistent opinion from the relevant departments on what needs to be complied with and by Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 2 when. This presents a considerable risk for water users, especially landowners given the significant fines associated with contravention of the Acts or associated regulations. Non- compliance issues are related to rehabilitation and/or duty of care. 1.2 REHABILITATION CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS The concept of rehabilitation has been studied, explored, and defined by many authors around the globe. Various descriptions and definitions have been documented in several studies. Rutherfurd et al. (2000) defined rehabilitation as the process of restoration/return/recovery to natural or former state/conditions in which part of the original ecosystem elements have not been recovered. WRC (2016a) defined rehabilitation as the process of promoting the recovery of ecosystem functions and values in a degraded system to regain some of the values of the system previously had to society. The two most commonly used concepts for the rehabilitation of water resources are rehabilitation and restoration. In most literature, both are aiming for the same outcome, the return of the structure and function of a degraded ecosystem to the closest achievable approximation of its natural (pre- impact) state (WRC, 2003a). Several authors have since defined restoration of the components of an ecosystem as rehabilitation (NRC, 2002; Roni et al., 2008; Åberg and Tapsell, 2013). The main difference between rehabilitation and restoration is the perceived endpoint (WRC, 2016a). Restoration is different from rehabilitation and refers to the manipulation of a site to revert the watercourse back to its full range of natural (historic) processes and functions. Restoration attempts to restore habitats back to their natural (historic also known as the Reference State) conditions. In the South African context, this means restoring rivers to a Reference State whilst rehabilitation, by comparison, only aims to improve aspects of the degraded state such as some of the identified assets and processes of a system (WRC, 2016a). Rutherfurd et al. (2000) argued that to achieve true restoration, the natural range of water quality functioning, natural sediment and flow regime, natural channel geometry and stability, natural riparian communities and native aquatic plants and animals would have to be fulfilled. There is no consensus on the strict definitions of the descriptions and distinctions between river restoration, rehabilitation, and remediation internationally (WRC, 2016a). All these terms indicate activities undertaken to improve or enhance river ecosystems in some way or the other. Figure 1 below illustrates the different concepts as generally understood in the South African rehabilitation perspective. The term remediation is appropriate in cases where it is not possible to rehabilitate due to ecosystems being irretrievably degraded or where a system has been fundamentally altered in character but has, over time, adjusted and achieved a state of dynamic equilibrium. Remediation aims to improve the ecological condition of the ecosystem, while not aiming for an outcome which resembles its original condition (WRC, 2004). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 3 Figure 1: The distinction between rehabilitation (towards natural), restoration (the achievement of the natural or historical condition) and remediation (select mitigation of degradation) Source: WRC, 2016a Other concepts, such as enhancement, improvement, mitigation, ecological reclamation, and habitat creation, are part of restoring an ecosystem to its natural condition (Roni et al., 2002). When these activities do not entirely restore an ecosystem, they are referred to as rehabilitation (Stanford et al., 1996; Roni et al., 2005). In this River Rehabilitation Guidelines document, the term rehabilitation has been adopted, with the goal of rehabilitation being the process of improvement of essential aspects of the ecosystem, with the aim to regain some of the value the system previously had. This resonates with the DWS goal of promoting sustainable usage of water resources. 1.3 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR RIVERS The primary objectives of the guidelines are to: • Develop Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) for Rivers in terms of their interactions with characteristics of watercourses, namely; hydrology (surface flow and interflow), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, biota, and groundwater flows; and • Integrate, align, and harmonize river rehabilitation work across various disciplines and institutions. Note: The DWS is not in any position duplicating existing rehabilitation guidelines, manuals or best practices that are currently available. Instead, it is integrating existing work and efforts across various disciplines, government, and non-government departments as well as institutions to ensure the harmonization and centralisation of the existing work to date. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 4 1.4 DEFINITION OF WATERCOURSES In terms of the definition contained within the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), a watercourse means: • A river or spring; • A natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; • A wetland, dam, or lake into which, or from which, water flows; and • Any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse; and • A reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks. Note: The link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses is contained in the definition above as well as in Section 3.1 and 3.2 of the report. 1.5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES The current RMGs was developed for characteristics of watercourses, namely; hydrology (surface flow and interflow), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, biota and groundwater flows. The following aspects were covered under each characteristic of the watercourse: • Description of the specific characteristics of watercourses; • Types of impacts for each characteristic of the watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that gives rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal considerations – applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of a watercourse; and • Development of Rehabilitation Guidelines – step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. 1.5.1 Guiding Principles According to Rountree et al. (2007), guidance for rehabilitation planning can be applied to the river rehabilitation context derived from the South African National Working for Wetlands Programme. Some important aspects of guidance are provided in Figure 2 below. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 5 Figure 2: Guiding Rehabilitation Steps Source: Adapted from Rountree and Batchelor, 2008 The need for rehabilitation arises from degradation and pollution input from various sources such as compounding toxic agricultural chemicals and industrial/mining pollutants. Although interventions may not be able to reinstate water resources to a natural state, a functional state must be the aim of ecosystem recovery initiatives. King et al. (2003) and WRC (2016) recommended the following key principles for rehabilitation: • Defining rehabilitation objectives; • The objectives for rehabilitation should be clear, and explicit; • Rehabilitation must direct the system back towards a more natural state, and work in harmony with the significant abiotic drivers of the ecosystem 1 ; • Undertaking rehabilitation should be seen as an interdisciplinary activity, recognising that rehabilitation may be necessary over a range of spatial and temporal scales; • Rehabilitation should aim at treating causes rather than symptoms; • Given that ecosystems are dynamic and can naturally exist in alternative metastable states, it should be remembered that it is easier to cross a degradation threshold than to return over it; and • Monitoring should be an essential component of rehabilitation. 1 Recognising that toxic environmental pollutants and contaminants will always be a factor and the flow into the aquatic systems will not stop. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 6 Below is a list of some key importance and applicability of the above-mentioned principles: • Ecosystem-based approach; • Re-instating natural processes; • Enhancing biodiversity and habitat diversity; • Improving water quality; • Flood mitigation and erosion control; • Stakeholder engagement and community involvement; and • Long-term sustainability. 1.5.2 Approach The development guidelines are the core of this report. The River RMGs aim to guide the water users on step-by-step measures/interventions to be followed for executing rehabilitation with specific attention to and consideration to planning, design, implementation, and monitoring for the identified impacts. Table 1 below depicts the approach for the development of the RMGs. Table 1: Approach for the development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Rivers including the associated characteristics of watercourses. Phase Description PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase • The characteristics will be diagnosed to identify the cause/source of impact and determine the level of modification and rehabilitation measures that will be recommended to reinstate the conditions of the drivers. • Determine the conditions and the type, size, and extent of impacts and vegetation cover/ species on characteristics of watercourses. PHASE 2: Planning & Assessment Phase • Conduct planning and assessment to ensure the desired rehabilitation outcomes are achieved. • Assess and collate available information from maps & datasets on the affected watercourses. • Review and assess legal considerations. PHASE 3: Define the Rehabilitation Objectives • Identify and define the objectives of rehabilitation to ensure the impacts on the characteristics of watercourses are addressed PHASE 4: Execution • Recommend techniques and methods to address the impacts identified. Consider the protection of the water resources ecosystem. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation (M & E) and Reporting. • Monitor the results of the techniques and methods employed for rehabilitation to determine whether objectives are being achieved and whether there are any additional interventions required. • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. • Compilation of Rehabilitation Report. Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 7 1.6 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES The RMGs for rivers is a set of tools developed to ensure that clear and practical steps are provided on a wide range of rehabilitation measures/interventions related to characteristics of watercourses which take cognisance of legal, social, economic, and ecological aspects. The guidelines are intended for all Government Departments (National, Provincial and Local), Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs), sectoral institutions (i.e., higher education institutions), civil society members, non- governmental entities, private sector (agriculture, industries, mining) and all interested and affected parties involved in the water sector. The guidelines are developed at a national scale for implementation at a catchment scale/level. 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES The guideline is divided into six main sections as follows: • The opening sections contain the document signatories, document index and status, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of figures, tables, acronyms, and executive summary. • Section 1 provides the background of the development of the guidelines, purpose, approach, intended users and structure of the guidelines. • Section 2 provides the overarching legal framework for river rehabilitation. • Section 3 describes the characteristics of watercourses and their linkage to water resources. • Section 4 provides the overarching impacts of water resources and the impacts related to the characteristics of watercourses. • Section 5 provides step by step Technical Rehabilitation Guidelines for characteristics of watercourses. • Section 6 provides recommendations and a way forward. • The last section presents the bibliography and list of appendices. 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK Section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) makes provision for the right to an environment that is not harmful to the health or well-being of everyone; and an environment that is protected for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that (i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation; (ii) promote conservation; and (iii) secure ecologically sustainability. A variety of legal tools (i.e., acts, gazettes, regulations) need to be considered when undertaking river rehabilitation activities. The main pieces of overarching legislation in South Africa are the National Water Act (NWA) (Act 36 of 1998), National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) (Act 107 of 1998), National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEMA:BA) (Act 10 of 2004) and National Environmental Management: Waste Act (NEM: WA) Act 59 of 2008). These legislative tools, in some instances, give provision for some small- scale rehabilitation activities to be undertaken without prior authorization (NEMA) or are eligible for General Authorization (GA) (under the NWA). Medium-to-large-scale rehabilitation activities may require different approvals before commencement. These may include licenses, environmental authorizations, permits or rights. The various types of environmental approvals are discussed below (Table 2). There are other related environmental legislations that can apply to river rehabilitation Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 8 activities depending on the cause for rehabilitation and steps that may need to be carried out. The overarching pieces of legislation applicable to river rehabilitation are as follows: • Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996; • National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) (NWA); • National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act 107 of 1998) (NEMA); • National Heritage Resources Act, Act 25 of 1999 (NHRA); • National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act 59 of 2008) (NEM: WA); • National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004) (NEM: BA) and its related AIS Regulations (GG No.R 1020, 25 September 2020) and associated AIS lists (GG No.R 1003, 18, September 2020); • National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003) (NEM: PAA); • Fertilizer, farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947) and Regulations relating to Agricultural Remedies (GG No. R. 3812, 25 August 2023); Hazardous Substances Act, (Act 15 of 1973) (HSA); • Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act No. 85 of 1993): Hazardous Chemical Agent Regulations, 2021, (published as Government Notice No. R280 of 29 March 2021) (HCA); • Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1993 (Act 43 of 1983) (CARA); and • Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 (Act 28 of 2002) (MPRDA). • Municipal by-laws. Table 2: Legislative Tools Applicable for River Rehabilitation. Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process DWS National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) 21, 36, 40, 41, 43, 19 Water Use License Application (WULA), Waste Discharge Charge System (WDCS), General Authorization (GA). Government Notice (GN. 704) 21 (j), (g), Reg 4(c) GN.704 Exemption Application for backfilling activities. GN 509 21(c) and (i) GN509 allows water users to apply for Section 21(c) & (i) under a General Authorisation (GA), as opposed to a full WULA. These water uses may include general construction, maintenance and/or emergency work, river and stormwater management activities and undertaking river rehabilitation works within the regulated area of a watercourse. For a water use (or potential) to qualify for a GA under GN 509, the proposed water use/activity must be subject to analysis by a suitably qualified natural scientist who is professionally registered with the South Africa Council for Natural Scientific Professions (SACNASP) using the DWS Risk Assessment Matrix (RAM). Note: GN509 does not exempt the water user from compliance with any other provision of the Act or from any other applicable legislation, regulation, ordinance, or by-law. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 9 Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process GN 1198 21(c) and (i) GN1198 relieves a water user from the need to apply for a license for impeding or diverting the flow of water in a watercourse in terms of section 21(c) or altering of the bed, banks, characteristics of watercourses in terms of section 21 (i) of the NWA for the purpose of rehabilitation, provided that the use is within the provision set out in the Notice. Note: GN1198 does not exempt the water user from compliance with any other provision of the Act or from any other applicable legislation, regulation, ordinance, or by-law. GA 1198 authorizes the Working for Wetlands Program, and as a result, the DFFE makes its submission in terms of that to DWS. This is the current approach DFFE uses to obtain authorization. DALRRD Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 (Act 43 of 1983) 6, 7, 12, 15D Application for consent Section 12 Demarcation of biocontrol reserve- 15D Fertilisers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947) and its Regulations relating to Agricultural Remedy (GN 3812, 25 August 2023) Section 3(1)(2)(3), Section 7 Deals with all pesticides registered in the country to control AIS, and the amended regulations highlight the new registration criteria indicating that pesticides have to comply with GHS labelling practises and HHP’s will not be registered from June 2024 in the categories stipulated in Annexure A. The act provides for the registration of fertilisers, farm feeds, agricultural remedies, stock remedies, sterilising plants, and pest control operators with the aim of regulating or prohibiting the importation, sale, acquisition, disposal or use of fertilisers, farm feeds, agricultural remedies, and stock remedies. Furthermore, it governs the use of antimicrobials for growth promotion and prophylaxis/metaphylaxis and the purchase of over-the-counter (OTC) antimicrobials by the lay public (chiefly farmers). Regulations relating to Agricultural Remedies (GG No. R. 3812) 8(1)(b), 8(6)(a), 34(1), 38, Annexure A Unreasonable adverse effects on the environment, risks from exposure, waste management and disposal (contamination risks), categorization criteria. DFFE Mountain Catchment Areas Act, 1970 (Act 63 of 1970) 2, 3, 4(1), 11, 14 - Environment Conservation Act, 1989 (Act 73 of 1989) 26 Scoping Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 10 Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004) 38, 41, 43, 52, 53, 56, 57, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 The act deals with the requirements to control Invasive Alien and Invasive Species and the requirements for Alien and Invasive Species Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans if found on your property. National Biodiversity Framework & bioregional plans, Biodiversity management Plans, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) (2(bA)(iii), Basic Assessment Report (BAR) • Alien and Invasive Species Regulations (GG no. R 1020) • Guidelines for Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans for species listed as invasive in terms of section 70 of Act no. 10 of 2004 (NEM: BA) and as required by section 76 of this act. 70 (1)(a), 75(1), (2), (3), 6, 21, 76 • Plans must be submitted to the Competent Authority in terms of Section (10)(2)(b) AIS listed, Species Management Plans, restricted activities, permitting. The conveying, moving/removing or otherwise translocating any specimen of a listed invasive species as PROHIBITED for category 1a and 1b species. National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act 107 of 1998) Section 28, Regulation 386, Activity 1 (m) gazetted in terms of Section 24 EIA, BAR, Environmental Management Plan/Programme (EMP) National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act 59 of 2008) 5, 7,12(1)(b)(iii), (iv), 16(3), 19, 27(2), 45, 69(d), (f), 81 Waste Management Strategy, Control/modify/monitor environmental pollution, Detrimental waste management activities, Water Management License (WML), Licence in terms of section 45, Regulations for compliance monitoring, duty of care, transitional provisions South Africa Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) National Heritage Resources Act, 1999 (Act 25 of 1999) 34(1), 35, 36, 38, 45, 28, Permit in terms of section 48 Department of Minerals Resources and Energy (DMRE) Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 (Act 28 of 2002) 5A, 22, 23, 27, 38A, 98, 99, 106 Permit in terms of section 27 or right in terms of section 23 Municipalities By-laws Sanitation, Land use Management, Waste Management, Stormwater Management, Diffuse Water Quality Management by- laws Applicable (per area) municipal by-laws need to be considered by every person(s) undertaking rehabilitation. Department of Employment and Labour. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act no. 85 of 1993) and Regulations for Hazardous Chemical - The act deals with exposure to hazardous chemical agents (pesticides) and protection of operators. It provides GHS hazard classes in relation to physical hazards, health hazards and environmental hazards as well prohibited HCA’s. Operator exposure limits Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 11 Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process Agents (HCA), 2021 (GN 280, 29 March, 2021). (OEL) and body exposure indices (BEI) are given to assist in developing safety limits for controlling AIS. Note: The DWS GA 509 of August 2016 was revised and updated with GA 4167 of December 2023. The GA makes provision for rehabilitation work in general that will enhance the Present Ecological State (PES) of watercourses/ water resources. In general, the RMGs do not only concentrate on water use authorisations for new applications but also on historic activities that were undertaken without proper authorization. Note: • The DWS does not authorize rehabilitation, but it authorizes the impeding, diverting, or changing of bed/banks of characteristics of watercourse. If any of those activities in terms of rehabilitation constitute those water uses, they need to get authorized accordingly. • The RMGs guide other external persons (i.e., private) for any rehabilitation activities that may impede, divert, and change the bed/banks of characteristics of watercourses; if these other person(s) are impeding, diverting, and changing the bed/banks, then they should apply for authorization for which there is a provision for within the DWS. 2.2 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PRINCIPLES Various policies, strategies and principles inform River Rehabilitation Management in South Africa, and these include, but are not limited, to the items: Policies and Strategies • National Development Plan (NDP). • The National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS III) (2023). • The National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP) (2018). • The Draft Environmental Rehabilitation Policy (2014). • National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. • National Biodiversity Assessment. • National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPA). The NFEPA maps and supporting information form part of a comprehensive approach to sustainable and equitable development of South Africa’s scarce water resources. For integrated water resources planning, NFEPA guides how many rivers, wetlands and estuaries, and which ones, should remain in a natural or near-natural condition to support the water resource protection goals of the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) and for biodiversity resilience and persistence (WRC,2011). • The Integrated Water Quality Management (IWQM) Policies (2016) and Strategies for South Africa (2017). • Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa – Second Edition (2023). • The implementation of Gazetted Resource Directed Measures (RDM), particularly the Reserve, Water Resource Classification, Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs), and Sources Directed Controls (SDCs). • The Catchment Management Strategy is informed by the National Water Policy and promotes Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 12 the sustainable balance between the utilisation and protection of water resources in a catchment. • Policy principles and guidelines for control of developments affecting natural forests (2010) aimed to ensure the effective protection and sustainability of natural forests through proper control over development and land use change affecting forests in South Africa. • National Waste Management Strategy. • National Species Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans. • National Biodiversity Framework and Bioregional Plans. Key Water Resource Management Principles and Concepts • Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) - a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. It considers the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, and environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - are aimed at ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework, data produced by national statistical systems, and information collected at the regional level. • Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) - aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets. Although the DWS focuses mainly on reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. • Social-Ecological Systems (SES) – are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES A comprehensive process of water resources rehabilitation requires the consideration to characteristics of watercourses, namely hydrology (surface flow and interflow), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, biota, and groundwater flows. For all the characteristics mentioned above, rehabilitation of watercourses is limited. Generally, rehabilitation concerning shaping, re-vegetation, and AIS eradication is limited under the NWA. Rehabilitation interventions and practices that prioritise and include water quality issues such as pollution from WWTWs and from non-point sources are also limited. There are multiple concerns around issues of rehabilitation and the main contributing factors are mines, industries, agriculture, WWTWs as well as poor compliance and implementation of legislation in terms of buffers to watercourses. Therefore, the need for the development of the rehabilitation guidelines with a focus on the characteristics of watercourses is essential. To this end, it is to consider factors (drivers and responses) that underpin water ecosystem condition and functionality, including the interactions between the physical patterns, products (e.g., ecosystem services) and materials (e.g., aquatic ecosystems). Figure 3 below depicts the Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) components for ecosystems. This figure demonstrates that water flow, water Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 13 quality, and geomorphology are the main drivers of EWRs, whilst habitat (vegetation) and biota (fauna) i.e., animals and flora (i.e., plants), are the responses. These drivers and responses are inherently interlinked. Figure 3: The Ecological Water Requirements of the Reserve including drivers and responses Source: Beechie and Bolton, 1999 3.2 LINK BETWEEN WATER RESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES The rehabilitation of water resources is directly linked to that of the characteristics of watercourses (drivers and responses) because impacts on water resources may be as equally prevalent on all these characteristics of watercourses. A point in case is that instream dams are considered water resources as well as part and parcel of the watercourses because all characteristics of watercourses come into play when dealing with a dam e.g., surface flow, interflow, water quality, geomorphology, habitat, and biota. The other reason is that dams share the same characteristics as lakes and/or rivers in terms of hydrological and geomorphological connectivity, whilst habitat, and buffers around them are as equally important. In terms of the implementation of the management actions, rivers require Ecological Flow requirements. Figure 4 below illustrates the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 14 Figure 4: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. 4. WATER RESOURCE IMPACTS 4.1 RIVER ECOSYSTEM STATUS AND DEGRADATION IMPACTS Generally, river ecosystems are mainly threatened and impacted by flow and physico-chemical alterations which are regarded as a significant impact on river ecosystems. Flow and physico-chemical alteration is driven by activities such as unlawful damming, irrigation, excessive abstractions and poor catchment management; continuous and excessive amounts of pollutants from domestic, agricultural, and industrial sources upstream; and infestation and encroachment of alien and invasive plants. Figure 5 below provides a schematic illustration of the three main broad categories of impacts on river systems in South Africa as reported by WRC (2003b), namely physical disturbance associated with AIS and land use either within the broader catchment or the river channel itself; hydrological manipulations due to agricultural and afforestation activities; and chemical disturbances which relate to the variation of water quality in rivers due to irrigation return flows, discharge of effluent and pesticide and associated compounds loading and decanting AMD water. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 15 Figure 5: Schematic illustration of the three main broad categories of impacts on river systems 5. GUIDELINES FOR RIVERS AND ASSOCIATED CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES 5.1 HYDROLOGY The hydrological cycle is the circulation of water within the earth's hydrosphere, involving changes in the physical state of water between liquid, solid, and gas phases and the exchange of water between atmosphere, land, surface, and subsurface waters. Figure 6 below illustrates the interaction between different components of the hydrological system and water movement and storage. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 16 Figure 6: Illustration of the Hydrological cycle Source: WRC, 2004 5.1.1 Components of the Hydrological Cycle The hydrological cycle consists of various components as illustrated in Figure 7 form an essential part of the development of the guidelines. Figure 7: Components of the Hydrological Cycle Source: adapted from WRC, 2004 Two components of the hydrological cycle will be the focus of the guidelines and are described as follows: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 17 • Surface flow/surface runoff - all surface and subsurface flow from a catchment, which in practice refers to the flow into a river, i.e., excludes groundwater not discharged into a river (WRC, 2004) • Interflow - the rapid flow of water along the unsaturated/vadose zone flow paths and has the potential to infiltrate the subsurface and move both vertically and laterally before discharging into other water bodies (WRC, 2004). 5.1.2 Surface Flow/Runoff Impacts Access to free-flowing water of good quality is a basic human need, yet anthropogenic activities are persistently altering and degrading rivers which directly impacts on water availability for various ecosystem needs such as ecosystem functioning and human livelihood. As a result, there is a global growing concern about extensive ecological degradation and loss of biological diversity due to river exploitations. Flow alteration (by construction of dams, weirs, abstractions, diversions etc.) is one of the key impacts humans have on freshwater ecosystems leading to biological impairment of the ecosystem services they provide. Flow alteration (Figure 8) refers to the modification of flow characteristics or natural conditions, which may change biotic community composition. Flow alterations are closely linked to temporal variability and regional flow characteristics such as the variance in rainfall patterns, vegetation, development, geology, and other catchment characteristics. Figure 8: Conceptual diagram for flow alteration Source; US EPA, 2021 According to Rolls and Bond (2017), flow regime change is evident in terms of altered baseflows, reduced flooding magnitude and frequency, reduced floodplain inundation, and altered flow variability; however, the extent to which these hydrological components are modified depends on the river hydrological change. It is, therefore, crucial to understand that characteristics of ecological responses differ in response to change across hydrological components and are strongly determined by local factors such as hydroclimatic region, biological traits of organisms, and how flow regime change manifests in terms of stream hydraulics. In general, the main factors affecting the runoff from a catchment area are: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 18 • Precipitation characteristics (type of precipitation, rainfall intensity, rainfall amount and duration); • Shape and size of catchment; • Topography; • Geologic characteristics; • Meteorological characteristics; and • Storage characteristics of a catchment linked to geology and land cover/use. 5.1.3 Interflow Impacts Afforestation 2 and alien vegetation impacts 3 : Afforestation and alien and invasive vegetation impact runoff, i.e., interflow and/or stream flow. Alien vegetation impacts are notably linked to water quality and geomorphological impacts. Section 36(2) of the National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998) (NWA) states that a stream flow reduction activity is any activity that is likely to reduce the availability of water in a watercourse to the Reserve, to meet international obligations, or to other water users significantly (DWAF, 1999). Afforestation has been declared as a streamflow reduction activity, the only activity declared thus far by the DWS. Stream flow reduction (SFR) activities produce less runoff (or outflow) than they would have produced if it were a natural area (WRC, 2011). These activities are, in general, easily visualised as wooded areas within a catchment, but it may also be alien and invasive vegetation or an afforestation area (e.g., commercial and eucalyptus plantation). As such, there may be many different stream flow reduction activities within a catchment, each with their own characteristics. Afforestation plants are usually listed as AIS per the NEM: BA AIS Lists of (GG No.R 1003, 18 September 2020). Species, clones, and hybrids from Eucalyptus, Pinus and Acacia genera are usually planted for commercial purposes. However, because they are deep rooted, evergreen, have higher evapotranspiration, and are highly invasive, they have to be closely managed and their spread controlled. Over-abstraction and water loss impacts: Over-abstraction of surface water from a river has a direct impact on interflow. Similarly, these impacts are encountered when there is a relationship between interflow and groundwater - interflow often occurs in the perched shallow water table. A perched water table occurs when the groundwater level is located above the main water table in the unsaturated zone formed as a result of a discontinuous impermeable layer. Figure 9 depicts perched water bodies (aquifers) and water tables. 2 The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines define afforestation as the "planting of new forests on lands which, historically, have not contained forests, Duan & Abduwadi (2021)”. This then means that if the area is a commercial forestry plantation, but the AIS are forestry species that has ‘escaped’, then it is not considered under afforestation. 3 Cullis et al., (2007) highlighted the impact of up-land AIS on catchments and riparian areas to amount to approximately 172 million m 3 /annum while Eucalyptus species in ideal conditions can account for at least 35% of that volume. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 19 Figure 9: Illustration of a Perched Aquifer and water table Source: Fitts, 2002 Over-abstraction of groundwater within perched aquifers also impacts interflow. The consequences of overexploitation are confirmed by Knüppe (2011) as lowered groundwater tables resulting in a decoupling of the groundwater and surface water systems, including water exchange between rivers, wetlands, and springs. Poor land use management activities such as agriculture, river diversions, and developments interrupt flow paths and connectivity between stream channels and groundwater, which causes water losses. The excessive use of pesticides adversely affects the state of groundwater as pesticides, their transformation products, metabolites, and residues are not broken down due to the absence of microbes and bacteria, resulting in an increasing concentration in the groundwater and exponential risk to the environment and communities who subsist on groundwater. Below is a list of impacts of poor land use management on interflow. • Forestry impacts – forestry utilises interflow and impacts surface water and groundwater resources by lowering both surface and groundwater levels. Pesticides used in forestry practices enter surface waters through run-off and drift while entering interflow and groundwater through percolation and leaching. • Agricultural impacts - changes in soil properties due to changing land use include ploughing (loosening), compaction (densification), imported material (variable properties), cut-and-fill (interruption of flow paths), and change processes and the associated movement of ions and fines (WRC, 2014). The above changes in soil properties impact interflow negatively since it occurs in shallow soils. Agricultural pesticides are available in a variety of formulations and applications, but those that have high mobility rates (Kd & Koc = high), high soil sorption (Koc / Kfoc) factors, persistence in soil (DT50 = high), GUS leaching potential indices, the potential for particle-bound transport indices, and potential for loss via drain flow, will negatively impact interflow (Pesticide Properties Database - PPDB, 2023). • River diversion and developments - connectivity between stream channels and groundwater may be lost due to interruption of the continuous water supply or through canalisation Downstream ecosystems are inevitably influenced, and groundwater recharge may be significantly decreased due to increased evaporation from sealed surfaces and the removal of water through stormwater systems. • Poorly sited graves – interflow can be impacted from a quality perspective due to gravesites that are poorly located in areas dominated by shallow groundwater levels. WRC (2014) confirmed that interaction and interflow are possible between proximate graves, and/ or contaminated water may enter the vadose zone below the grave. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 20 5.1.4 Groundwater Flows Groundwater is an important contributor to baseflow. Baseflow is defined as the portion of water that contributes to the stream by delayed sources and groundwater (Hall 1968), and it is considered the lowest discharge of the stream in the dry season. Below are some of the factors/impacts that affect the contribution of groundwater flows to rivers and streams. Groundwater Impacts: According to Tóth (1970) and Sophocleous (2002), groundwater flows are influenced by three main hydrogeological factors described in Table 3, namely topographical, geological, and climatic effects – these factors have effects on groundwater flows as water flows from high elevation to low elevation and high pressure to low pressure. Groundwater depth remains connected to topography, i.e., water table (Hubbert 1940). Table 3: Factors and Impacts affecting groundwater flow Source: Tóth, 1970; Sophocleous, 2002 Factors/Impacts Description Topographical effects • Topography affects groundwater contribution to baseflow when the elevation of the water table is higher than the river water for groundwater to contribute to surface water Geological effects • Unconfined aquifers contribute water to surface water when high porosities exist in the subsurface • Confined aquifers require fractures and faults to contribute water to surface water • Groundwater flows into surface water when the streambed is permeable enough to permit water flows into the river. Climatic effects • Groundwater contribution to surface water is affected by climatic changes • High precipitation levels result in increased recharge, contributing to baseflow and maintaining river flows during dry seasons • Temperature changes and precipitation alter regional climatic and hydrologic systems Groundwater and Surface Water Interaction: Groundwater and surface water interaction occurs when groundwater contributes to surface water or the river recharges groundwater. The flow of water between the groundwater in aquifers and surface water is largely controlled by following factors: • Hydraulic gradient between the surface water level and the groundwater level; • Hydraulic properties of the aquifer; and • The geological properties of the material separating the aquifer from the surface water resource. Groundwater can discharge to a stream/river in some places and leak back into the groundwater system in others. Figure 10 is an illustrative diagram depicting the interaction between groundwater and streams/rivers. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 21 Figure 10: Illustrative diagram depicting stream/river-aquifer interactions – (a) connected gaining stream (b) connected losing stream Source: Winter et al., 1998 Anthropogenic activities in the catchment affect groundwater contribution to baseflow. Abstraction of groundwater for various purposes, reduces river-aquifer water exchange fluxes, reduces connectivity between groundwater and surface water, and organic and inorganic contamination. Contamination emanating from the river-aquifer must be investigated and suitable mitigation measures be implemented. Pesticides contaminating groundwater also contaminate surface water as well through the interactions between the two – creating a cyclic effect of pesticides, transformation products, metabolites, and residues between the river-aquifer, then added to the compounding effect when more CECs are added, which exponentially increases the exposure and risks. Heavy metals, particulate contaminants (nanomaterials, microplastics) and organic compounds (such as Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH’s) and Alkylphenols and Alkylphenol Ethoxylates are extremely toxic and persistent and proven to be Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDC’s) (Olujimi et al., 2011). Wee and Aris, (2023) indicated that Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) - known as the ‘forever chemicals’ have caused a global crisis as PFAS contamination increased globally by 13.6% between 2018 and 2019, in both river and groundwater and Cserbik et al., (2023) has proven that PFAS has been associated with endocrine disruption, developmental and reproductive toxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, immunotoxicity, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity , and is supported by Wee and Aris, (2023) and Cordner et al., (2019). Numerous methods and techniques have been used to quantify and detect groundwater and surface water interaction in South Africa and on a global scale. These methods and techniques are well established in literature, and the most commonly used methods include the following: • Hydrochemistry; • Hydrochemical analysis; • Environmental tracers (isotopes); • Hydrograph separation of the baseflow; • Direct seepage measurements using seepage meters; and • Hydraulic tests using mini-piezometers. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 22 Quantifying groundwater and surface water mechanisms is critical in groundwater resource- directed measures. The above methods and techniques will be explored in more detail in the upcoming Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater in the current RMG project. 5.1.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Interflow Scenario 1: Rehabilitation and Management of stream flow reductives activities i.e., afforestation PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Identify areas where there are afforestation species, for example, Eucalyptus species that need to be removed. Either due to being: o Unlawful plantations; o Areas where plantation species have spread or dispersed to (invaded), or o Sensitive and vulnerable areas (like riparian areas and wetlands) with established plantations where the implementation of buffers is required. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the affected resource is located. Step 3: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing is used to map out the targeted areas and their extent. Step 4: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, remote sensing, and other available information; describe in detail the area identified, proximity to water resources, natural vegetation type, soil type that produces less runoff/inflow (or outflow) than it would have produced if it were a natural area. Consider including the following in the descriptions: o Step 4.1: Visual description of the SFR areas, i.e., wood vegetated area, a swath of vegetation, or dense sugar cane or AIS infestation. o Step 4.2: Indicate whether the affected area is at a catchment, sub- catchment, or quaternary scale? o Step 4.3: Describe the extent or type of the infestation of the affected area, i.e., patchy or dense. o Step 4.4: Describe the conditions upstream, downstream, and in the vicinity of the affected area which will depend on the scale in Step 4.2. o Step 4.5: Assess platforms such as the CEC Knowledge Hub for data on possible contaminants in the river in question and source of the contamination. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment: Step 1: Conduct a ground-truthing survey (e.g., use drones) to identify and ascertain area(s) accurately affected by Afforestation. Step 2: Based on all the above information obtained in Step 1 above, identify the type of afforestation. Afforestation, in this case, forestry species that are also AIS and can be included in one of the following three priority genera, namely: o Pinus species (pines) Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 23 o Eucalyptus species (eucalypts) 4 and o Acacia species (wattles). Step 3: Map and delineate the area indicating the category and extent of the area(s) affected This step must also consider the upstream and downstream conditions of the area(s) affected. Step 4: Existing maps (topographic and/or orthophoto) must also be considered and used to ascertain the following: o Existing afforestation activities – this must also be inclusive of site-specific area(s) and specie(s) type(s). o Proposed afforestation activities - this must include site-specific area(s) and specie(s) type(s). o Existing surrounding land use activities indicating site-specific area(s) and specie(s). o Existing surrounding land use activities indicating types of pesticides used, volume (in kg’s or tons /litres) of pesticides, and hazard criteria of pesticide class (indicating potential environmental contamination and human health risks). o Existing and proposed infrastructure – this may include but is not limited to roads and dams. o Existing natural landscape features, such as rivers. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives: The rehabilitation objectives of SFR activities must be clear from the onset. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. In general, some of the common aims and objectives of rehabilitating SFR activities which must be defined and highlighted are: o To improve dry season streamflow by managing streamflow reduction activities on small river systems that are often stressed during the dry season. o To improve access to the flow of water (during both low and high flow seasons) to rivers and allow the natural infiltration process. Soil profiles for chronic contamination of residues, transformations products etc. must be taken into account before rehabilitation commences as it has the potential to impact how one rehabilitates (soil microbes, Nitrilotriacetic Acids (NTA’s) etc.) o To mitigate and/or reduce ground water contamination by managing pollution inputs into rivers. Groundwater contamination must also be taken into account with regards to CECs. PHASE 4: Execution Afforestation plants are usually also declared AIS as per the NEMBA AIS list of 2020. Therefore, below is a list of available methods of control: • Manual control such as uprooting, felling, cutting, or burning; • Chemical control with a registered herbicide under Act 36 of 1947, using the registered method and dosage for the species according to the label; • Biological control carried out in accordance with the stipulations of the Agricultural Pests Act, 1983 (Act 36 of 1983), the Environment Conservation Act, 1989 (Act 73 of 1989) and any other applicable legislation. Box 1 contains information to be considered for the application of the manual, chemical and biological methods for control for AIS. 4 Dzitziki et al., (2016) gives an example of 490 000 ha of Eucalyptus species that were planted in the Berg River catchment for commercial purposes, however, studies showed an annual streamflow reduction of 217 million m3 directly linked to the Eucalyptus and Pinus species in the catchment, Sibanda (2023). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 24 Box 1 Summary: • A combination of one or more methods recommended in the execution phase must be employed. • AIS Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans must be developed in terms of Sections (75(4) and (76) and submitted to the competent Authority in compliance with Section (10)(2)(b). • Progress in weed control should be documented or photographed and reported to the competent authority in line with Section 10(3) of the AIS Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans. • Do not disturb biological control agents when they are effective with other control methods to the extent that the agents are destroyed or become ineffective. Biocontrol reserves should be demarcated and protected under CARA Section (15D) of 1983. • Control options should form part of an ecological risk assessment 5 . PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Monitoring of areas must be undertaken to: • Ensure that treatment methods are adequate and effective to ensure that no additional measures are required and comply with the conditions stipulated in the AIS Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans Section (76). • Allow learning from past practices, so that ongoing initiatives are constantly improving and are in accordance with applicable legislation. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation, including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description, location, and date. Scenario 2: Control and Clearing of Alien Invasive Vegetation PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the areas infested by alien and invasive vegetation. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the affected resource is located. Step 3: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to identify the areas affected. 5 Ecological Risk Assessment (EcoRA) involves the assessment of the risks posed by the presence of substances released to the environment by man, in theory, on all living organisms in the variety of ecosystems which make up the environment. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 25 Step 4: Using information obtained from Google Earth satellite images and Remote Sensing, describe in detail areas identified that produce less runoff/inflow (or outflow). Consider including the following in the description: o Step 4.1: Visual description of the areas affected, and a ground assessment of the areas affected. o Step 4.2: Is the affected area at a catchment, sub-catchment, or quaternary scale? o Step 4.3: Is the area affected at a localized non-localized scale? o Step 4.4: Describe the extent of the infestation of the affected area. o Step 4.5: Describe the conditions upstream or downstream of the affected area, including the CEC’s. Step 5: Based on all the above information acquired, make an informed decision in terms of the type and habitat types of AIS vegetation affecting your area of concern. Two habitat types of alien vegetation are dealt with, namely: o Riparian and/or aquatic; and o Landscape/terrestrial. Other examples of known aquatic invasive species include floating macrophytes such as Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth), Pistia stratoites (water Lettuce), and the newly emerging species, Salvinia minima (common salvinia) amongst others, and submerged species such as Myriophyllum spicatum (spiked water milfoil), Egeria densa (dense water weed) and Vallisneria spiralis (tapeweed) amongst others. Landscape/Terrestrial invasive plants can further be categorized into the following growth forms, namely: o Sprouting trees o Non-sprouting trees o Shrubs o Cacti o Herbaceous o Grass o Creepers o Aquatic weeds Terrestrial species that are priority aggressive alien invasive invaders include the following, Prosopis vellutina (honey mesquite), Grevillea robusta (silky oak), Lantana camara (lantana), Opuntia stricta (Australian pest pear), Parthenium histerophorus (fevwerfew), Arundo donax (giant Spanish reed), and Andera baselloides (madeira vine) amongst others. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Below is a summarised list of steps to be followed during the planning and assessment phase of alien and invasive vegetation clearing 6,7 : • Identify priority alien and invasive plant species for control. • Identify sensitive indigenous vegetation that should be protected during alien and invasive plant clearing operations. 6 Water Research Commission (WRC). 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. 7 DFFE: EP.2021. Environmental Programmes Pesticide Policy and Pesticides Toolkit. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 26 • Mark individual trees or stands of vegetation to guide workers on-site during alien and invasive plant clearing and prevent accidental environmental contamination. Danger tape or paint markings can be used for marking or utilising mapping tools such as ArcGIS for mapping and monitoring. • Identify areas that should be protected from disturbance activities (e.g., fynbos renosterveld and biocontrol reserves) • Identify the most appropriate clearing method or combination of methods hat take account of the species requiring control, the specific conditions of the site, ecotoxicity, environmental fate, and human health impacts of the herbicide, and the circumstances of the landowner. Consult the DFFE: Environmental Programme (EP) Pesticide Policy and toolkit. • Identify and obtain the necessary field and personal protective equipment (PPE) for the selected clearing method(s) according to the mode of action of the herbicide and exposure risk utilising the appropriate PPE matrix, including the most appropriate herbicides. (DFFE, 2022), • Identify training needs for clearing workers and supervisors (e.g., herbicide application, use of chain saws, etc.) • Identify approaches and areas for the disposal of cleared plant material, dependent on the hazardous waste classification of the material. • Consult the DFFE EP Pesticide Policy and Pesticide Toolkit for the decision support tool to ensure environmental contamination and chronic human health exposure and risks are mitigated or at the least, lessened. • Prepare an accurate estimate of the financial costs of clearing and ensure that there are sufficient funds to achieve a successful outcome. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation of alien and invasive vegetation must be defined and be clear at the start. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives 8 : • To create space in which to address bank erosion by managing eroding banks and sites and reaches where down-cutting or incising occurs in compliance with 11(1)(n)(ii) of NEM: BA. • To increase space for flood alleviation by clearing alien and invasive vegetation to improve the conveyance or the natural flow of water, noting restricted activities compliance with Section (65)(1) and environmental authorisations under Section (24) of NEMA. • To rehabilitate a more natural river flow regime by releasing trapped sediments and allowing erosion processes to restore natural river levels. • To prevent erosion as a result of channel confinement and bank undercutting. • To improve biodiversity by allowing the establishment/generation of natural indigenous riverine flora. • To revitalise the natural disturbance regime of a river and allow natural erosion of sediments that would otherwise accumulate against encroaching alien and invasive plants. PHASE 4: Execution: Alien and invasive vegetation control methods are divided into three main categories; control options, namely manual (or mechanical) control, chemical control, and biocontrol, as illustrated in Figure 11. Integrated control methods or integrated plant species management (IPM) is the most effective method in various combinations, depending on the AIS, landscape, and bioregion. The DFFE Pesticide 8 WRC. 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 27 Policy and associated EP species and pesticide list, 2021 9 , with the pesticide toolkit and decision support tool, provides all the information needed, from the species, control methods, and herbicides to ecotoxicity, environmental fate, human health exposure and risks, hazard criteria and acute and chronic toxicities. These three methods have been prescribed and comprehensively covered in the River Rehabilitation Guidelines/Manual developed by WRC 10 and adapted to align with the methods under NEM: BA and the EP Pesticides Policy. These methods must be supported by a Plant Species Plan developed by a landscape architect or botanist. Figure 11: Alien vegetation clearing and control methods adapted to align to NEM: BA and the EP Pesticides Policy Sources: WRC, 2016; DFFE, 2021 Note: The chemical control method, which entails the application of herbicides, should be carried out in accordance with the stipulations of the Fertilisers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947). Box 2 contains information on other known methods that should be considered for the clearing and control of alien vegetation. 9 DFFE: EP, 2021. Environmental Programmes Pesticide Policy for the Control of AIS and associated documents. 10 WRC. 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. METHODS Physical i.e.,manual or mechanical Examples: hand pulling; cutting, slashing, burning, felling using a chaninsaw brush- cutting Biocontrol i.e., use of pathogens and grazers Examples: insects, mites, fungi, and bacteria Chemical i.e., application of herbicides Examples: selective and non-selective herbicides Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 28 Box 2 Cultural Control Methods focus on altering the environmental conditions to discourage the growth and spread of invasive plants, i.e., altering water levels, modifying soil conditions, implementing proper land management practices, or promoting the growth of native plant species to outcompete invasives. Preventive Measures include early detection and rapid response to new infestations, implementing strict biosecurity measures to prevent the introduction and spread of invasive plants, and promoting awareness and education about the risks associated with invasive species. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Monitoring of rehabilitated areas must be undertaken to: • Ensure that treatment methods are adequate and effective to ensure that no additional measures are required. • Allow learning from past practices so that ongoing alien and invasive plant-clearing initiatives are constantly improving and are in accordance with seasonal changes. The following monitoring suggestions are recommended by WRC 11 : • A fixed-point photographic record should be compiled, showing the river in its affected reaches before, during and at regular time periods after initial alien and invasive clearing has taken place. The internals will depend on the herbicide’s mode of action, the time taken to control the AIS and the time taken for regrowth to appear. • Historical Google Earth images should be used over time to provide a spatial record of the extent and effects of alien and invasive clearing. • Records should be kept of the time and costs required for each alien and invasive clearing intervention, and the approximate volume and life stage (e.g., seedling or mature plant) of the bulk of material removed on each occasion. Restricted activities as defined by NEM: BA includes ‘The conveying, moving/removing or otherwise translocating any specimen of a listed invasive species’ as PROHIBITED for category 1a and 1b species’. This information will allow quantifying of the costs of alien and invasive control, show landscape changes resulting from alien and invasive removal and potentially inform decisions that are required around changes in clearing frequency, area, or approach. • The use of remote sensing and GIS as tools for monitoring the effectiveness of the treatment methods employed. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and 11 WRC. 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 29 • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.1.6 Special considerations to be applied for Rehabilitation of areas affected by Alien and Invasive Vegetation Alien and invasive vegetation must be replaced with the appropriate indigenous vegetation to enable ecological functionality and reinstate ecosystem services. Rehabilitation and revegetation of the area in question must be done in the most appropriate way using best management practices (BMPs) according to Section 75(1) of the AIS Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans. Furthermore, alien management must be implemented in a phased approach to include both eradication and revegetation. Bantol et al. (2020) emphasised that consideration must be given to soil contamination remediation, especially where chronic toxicity herbicides were used that are persistent and residual in soil, and these pesticides can migrate into water and have serious impacts on vulnerable communities such as children, immunodeficient individuals and the elderly. 5.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY 5.2.1 Description Geomorphology is a science focused on understanding earth surface processes and landscape evolution (Keller et.al., 2020). Geomorphological understanding is central to environmental flows because it is the interaction between flow, form, and substrate that influences habitat type, condition, availability and biotic use across space and time (Meitzen et. al., 2013). The sub-discipline of geomorphology that specifically deals with landforms related to processes of erosion and deposition by flowing water is called fluvial geomorphology. It focuses on river channels and their associated riparian zones, as well as the catchment that generates the runoff, sediment and other materials transported by the river (WRC, 2013). According to Guano (2021), fluvial geomorphology is one of the principal landscapes of the world, and its processes greatly influence landscape modification. The long-term geomorphological evolution of rivers is strictly controlled by the interplay of tectonic activity and climate changes, and close to coastal zones, sea-level oscillations also contribute to modifying this natural system, as well as anthropogenic activities, which also contribute to the modification of river ecosystems (Figure 12). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 30 Figure 12: Simplified representation of the fluvial system and human interference Source: Charlton, 2008 Where moderate to rapid flow predominates, rivers erode, deposit silt and organic particles in areas of slow current, and their channel features are constantly altering in relation to discharge, width, depth, substrata, and sediment transport (Wetzel, 2001). It is, therefore, very important to note that fluvial geomorphology is a critical aspect that needs to be considered when doing river rehabilitation. It is important to note that the areas of sediment loading, and deposition will have higher concentrations of contact pesticides, transformation products and metabolites while the hydrophobic pesticides, transformation products and metabolites, will be in the water column (Gilliom et al., 2007). Table 4 provides some of the common geomorphological characteristics of rivers. Table 4: Geomorphological Characteristics of Rivers Source: adapted from Wetzel, 2001 Properties Characteristics Drainage basins Many small tributaries coalesce into trunk stream; and drainage area are high in relation to surface area Shape Long, meandering, and linear river elongate as drainage basins increase in size Mean depth Shallow in headwaters and increases to mouth Depth gradient Increases from headwaters to mouth Shoreline erosion and substrata distribution Extensive, induced by water currents and gravity driven Shoreline development Great and astatic Sediment loading High with large drainage basin area Deposition of sediments Determined by water current; and highly variable with precipitation events Sediment suspended in water High and variable Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 31 5.2.2 Factors Influencing Fluvial Geomorphology Scale is an important consideration in fluvial geomorphology, with process-form interactions occurring over a huge range of space (spatial scale) and time (temporal scale) (Charlton, 2008). Therefore, it is important to note that the change along a river channel and river system does not happen at once. As such, rivers and streams continuously shape and reform their channel through erosion of their bed and banks. Riverbed and bank erosion are a major environmental problem that is associated with fluvial geomorphology. Such that, once the topsoil has been removed, the lower soil layers are exposed. These layers have poor structure and are low in organic matter and nutrients, as a result they are less permeable leading to increased overland flows which increases the sedimentation supplied to rivers (Freeman and Rowntree, 2005). Sediment depositions reduce the depth and lead to the formation of channel bars. Human interventions on the other hand have had an influence on modification of river systems for many years. Anthropogenic activities can lead to events such as scouring or channel bed incision. Activities such as scouring of the channel bed deepens the channel, therefore channel engineering, deforestation, alien and invasive vegetation clearing, agriculture, and mining activities affects the flow of water and pesticide transformation products accumulate in bed-sediment (Gilliom et al., 2007) and affect the production of sediment. See the note below for consideration in terms of sediment management for ecological function improvement. Note: Instream dam construction on rivers intercepts sediments and causes reduced sediment supply/discharge into rivers. The watercourses are interrelated and therefore a systems approach is followed in the development of the scenario for management of sedimentation in rivers. 5.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of deteriorated culverts to manage upstream floods and promote free flows. Culvert rehabilitation can be described as the practice of extending or restoring the service life of a culvert without the removal of the existing culvert. The culvert rehabilitation process involves a number of steps starting with problem identification (diagnostic), causes of deterioration, impacts, and evaluation of stream conditions (assessment) and ending with maintenance (monitoring) after rehabilitation. Culvert deterioration results from many causes, such as improperly designed (loading exceeding the design capacity) or poorly maintained culverts (leading to increased soil elevation), which poses a serious threat to fish by disrupting their habitat and endangering spawning success and may be problematic for migratory species, which may lead to fragmentation of resident populations, as well as lead to flash floods due to clogged culverts. The following steps can be used to rehabilitate deteriorated culverts and should be complemented by other available nature-based solutions to reinstate ecological functions: Phase 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: The first and most important step is to develop a vision and realistic goal for rehabilitating that Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 32 specific river before setting specific/precise objectives and undertaking any planning or assessment work. This must be done in consultation with all the affected parties such as local and district municipalities. For example, a vision may be developed as follows: to restore river x to its pre-impact dynamic equilibrium state, or to rehabilitate all the poorly designed culverts as well as to maintain all culverts along river x to allow water to flow unobstructed and to prevent flooding. Whereas a goal may be set as follows: To improve the instream and riparian biodiversity within the stream corridor and to make it a safe, attractive, and indigenous recreational green belt 12 . It is also important before starting out to determine what the ecological condition of the water is and coupled with human and natural systems status quo assessment to ensure that the rehabilitation measures planned do not negatively impact the ecological condition. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Choose a site that has more than one poorly designed or maintained culvert using tools such as Google Earth, existing maps, and ground truthing. Phase 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Map all culverts identified along the channel. A Specialist with an understanding of geomorphology needs to be present to describe the natural (or pre-impact) state. The estimated water velocity needs to be included as part of the description. Makris et. al. (2012) in their study applied Manning’s formula (Equation 1) to estimate the water velocity. 푽=( ퟏ 풏 )푹 ퟐ/ퟑ 푺 ퟏ/ퟐ (1) 13 Step 2: Channel classification - channel classification is important as it assists with understanding the connection between the individual characteristics and the common features of different rivers. One of the recommended tools for classifying channels is the Geomorphology Driver Index Assessment (GAI), developed by WRC, 2013. The GAI is a rule-based model used to assess geomorphic Ecological Category (EC). Step 3: Describe the river conditions including the features that have not changed from the natural conditions, and assess all impacts and problems associated with degradation. This exercise informs areas that needs to be prioritised (Focus Areas) in the river. Once problems have been identified, the next step is to categorise them according to their priorities. Priorities can be categorised into classes from low priority (such as nuisance problems which have a minor effect on the biotic community) to high priority (such as damages to low water bridges due to blocked culverts and fatal problems which may include removing of fauna and flora from a reach). Phase 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation must be informed by the vision and goal, as well as data collected during the assessment phase. This process must include conditions and prioritisation of 12 WRC. 2004. A River Rehabilitation Planning Pilot Trial: The Ihlanza River, East London, South Africa. Based on the Australian River Rehabilitation Guidelines 13 Where, V is the average discharge velocity (m/s); n is the roughness coefficient of the culvert material; R is the average of the hydraulic radius [cross-sectional area of flow divided by a wetted parameter (m)]; S is the channel bed slope (m/m) and the outlet perch was the elevation of the culvert outlet minus the elevation downstream. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 33 areas/segments of the river as identified in the assessment phase. The most common objectives may include: the prevention of degradation, improvement of waterways/environment, or/and fixing the present problems (as identified in the assessment phase). Each prioritized area may have its distinct objective, based on any of these categories: Ecological, Infrastructural, social, or recreational. The identified objectives must be checked to determine if they are feasible and affordable, and a reasonable timeframe must be set to allow the river to respond to the rehabilitation actions. For instance, WRC (2004) adopted Rutherfurd et. al.’s (2000) method of setting a timeframe: a short-term objective for the completion of the rehabilitation output and a long-term objective for evaluation of the effect of the work. Phase 4: Execution This step involves providing detailed designs for the structure to be built or actions to be taken. It is important to determine the level of deterioration the culvert has sustained. Thereafter, decide whether to repair, rehabilitate or replace the culvert taking into consideration the cost involved and level of problems to be addressed. Figure 13 presents some of the standard methods to use when undertaking the rehabilitation of culverts. Figure 13: Methods used for the rehabilitation of culverts Source: Bruce and Leagjeld, 2014 In addition, it is important for effective environmental management that the applicant /developer is aware of the general principles upon which sound environmental management is based and that these METHODS Paved invert Description: involves the placing reinforced concrete on the invert of existing culverts. Culverts with diameters greater than 90 cm can receive paved inverts since personnel entry is possible. Cured-in- place pipe liner (CIPP) Description: involves the insertion of a felt or fibre tube saturated with resin. Two methods of installation are pulled-in-place and inversion Sliplining Description: involves inserting a pipe liner of smaller diameter directly into a deteriorated culvert. Liners are inserted into the host by either pulling or pushing the liner into place. Centrifugally cast liner Description: Applied to the culvert by an electrical or air powered rotating head. The liners can be constructed of cementitious mortar or other material. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 34 principles are considered in all aspects before the commencement of the activity. NEMA’s general framework for environmental management principles has been summarised in SANRAL 14 . Phase 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring It is required that there be routine and systematic inspection of the culverts and the flow of the stream using the established condition assessment rating to determine whether the conditions are degrading; and if the original priorities need to be modified. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation, including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 2: Rehabilitation of changed and incised watercourses to facilitate natural processes. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Identify the areas within the watercourse channel that are incised or impacted by erosion. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to identify the areas impacted by erosion and their extent. Soil erosion mapping can also be undertaken to ascertain the extent of the impacted areas. Step 4: Using Remote Sensing, describe in detail the areas (i.e., within the watercourse channel) impacted and the type of erosion impacts observed. Some of the examples of erosion that might be prevalent: o Sheet or interrill erosion o Rill erosion o Gully erosion o Tunnel erosion o Stream channel/bank erosion PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment 14 South African National Roads Agency SOC Limited (SANRAL). 2021. The Upgrading of National Route 1 Section 17 Between Westleigh (KM 77.8) and Heuningspruit (KM 101.6). Final Basic Assessment Report. DFFE Reference- 14-12-16-3-3-1-2312 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 35 Step 1: Conduct a ground-truthing survey to accurately identify the factors causing erosion impacts on the identified areas. Some of the common factors are as follows: o Rainfall erosivity. o Soil erodibility. o Topography. o Vegetation cover. Step 2: Map and delineate the areas impacted and clearly show the extent of the areas impacted. Step 3: Describe in detail the factors causing erosion and the type of erosion that is prevalent. This information is important and will inform the rehabilitation methods or techniques to be employed. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation of incised or eroded river channels must be clear from onset. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. In general, some of the common aims and objectives of rehabilitating incised or eroded rivers include: o To enhance the stability of the river and improve flow of water within the river channels. o To improve support and other life forms that belong in the habitat and enhance the biodiversity status of the general river environment. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Identify and employ the appropriate rehabilitation methods or techniques based on the site- specific extent of erosion, type of erosion and factors contributing to the impacted areas Step 2: Employ one or a combination of the available direct and indirect methods (Table 5) and techniques available for rehabilitation: Table 5: Direct and indirect methods and techniques for rehabilitation of erosion. Direct Method (Addressing erosion where the intervention is slightly remote from the site of the problem) Indirect Method where the problem is addressed indirectly (i.e., something covers the soil to prevent it from eroding). 1. Bank stabilization using the below groyne structures to reduce flow velocities: o permeable groyne o solid groyne, o micro-groynes o Iowa vanes groyne 1. Bank Reshaping: o landscaping and re-vegetation 2. Bank shaping and armouring o coir or geo-filter rolls 3. Bank shaping and armouring o flexible concrete block mats 4. Bank stabilization o riprap (rock) 5. Bank stabilization with below longitudinal river training structures o logs and tree stumps o green gabions o rock gabions o concrete block retaining walls, o used-tyre retaining walls, reinforced concrete retaining walls Step 3: The above methods/techniques must be designed and constructed according to the approved Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 36 engineering standards. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Undertake routine and systematic inspection of the rehabilitated areas to determine whether the flow and habitat conditions are improving or further degrading. Additional management measures must be implemented in the event the conditions do not improve. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation, including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.3 WATER QUALITY 5.3.1 Description Water quality is a concept that refers to the condition of water using various parameters such as chemical, physical, and biological (Giri and Qiu, 2016; Camara et al., 2019). These parameters indicate levels that pose no risk to humans and/or impose restrictions or limitations on the use of water, depending on the purpose of the water usage. Accordingly, there are various criteria for water quality standards such as safety for human consumption, agricultural usage, fishery, recreational, and sustainability of natural aquatic ecosystems. 5.3.2 Types of Water Quality Impacts Water quality is influenced by several factors depicted on Figure 14, which include precipitation (rainfall), climate, type of soil, geology, vegetation, groundwater, flow conditions, and anthropogenic activities (Charalampous et al., 2015). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 37 Figure 14: Key landscape characteristics affecting water quality Source: Lintern, 2017 Water quality is affected by both point-source and non-point source pollution. Point sources of pollution are directly discharged to receiving water resources at a discrete location, such as pipes and ditches from WWTWs 15 , industrial sites and confined intensive livestock operations. Non-point source/diffuse sources of pollution are indirectly discharged to receiving water resources, via overland and subsurface flow and atmospheric deposition to surface waters and leaching through the soil structure to groundwater during periods of rainfall and irrigation (Reese, 2020). The biggest threat to water quality is posed by point source pollution from industries and wastewater treatment plants (Herbig and Meissner, 2019). Inadequately treated effluent from wastewater treatment plants poses a health risk to humans (Manickum and John, 2014). In South Africa, this is a very serious problem that should be emphasised more. Activities such as mining, contributing to AMD, as well as urban development also have an impact on water quality (Manders et al., 2009). Furthermore, AMD causes a reduction in water resource pH, which increases the availability of dissolved metals for uptake by benthic organisms and fish (Dhir, 2018). This in turn, becomes a major pathway for their introduction into the human food chain. Non-point sources of pollution, on the other hand involve pollution that originates from runoff over a relatively large area. Diffuse pollution sources can be divided into source activities related to either land or water use, including nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus from sources like pesticides and fertilizers through agricultural runoff), sediments and toxic contaminants such as pesticide residue, metabolites, and their transformation products (Volk et al., 2016; Islam et al., 2018). Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) emanating from agricultural runoff which also includes contaminants and pathogens of emerging concern; Emerging pathogens and/or CECs, including endocrine disruptors emanating from pharmaceutical industries, enter the systems from WWTWs and contribute to accumulative impacts on human and ecological health. 15 Faecal sludge is another common source of point-source pollution that emanates from on-site sanitation systems (i.e., ventilated, and non-ventilated improved pit latrines, conservancy tanks, septic tanks, chemical toilets, and flush bucket toilet) and introduce nutrients and harmful microbes in water resources. A scenario is developed in Section 5.3.3 dealing with the management of faecal sludge. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 38 Another concern is the change in temperature due to the confluence between rivers causing water to become warm and hold less Dissolved Oxygen (DO) which is not enough to sustain the survival of aquatic species. Water bodies receive oxygen from the atmosphere and from aquatic plants. There are also several pesticide pollutants and chemicals that are of concern to river ecology in South Africa. 5.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality Scenario 1: Improvement of poor water quality attributed to effluent discharge from WWTWs and Industries into Rivers. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Undertake a desktop assessment to identify the WWTWs & industries whose effluent may negatively impact the water quality of the rivers (i.e., facilities situated as far away as 5km-10km away from a rivers). Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 2: Request historical water quality data and/or incident reports from relevant authorities (for water quality trends and patterns) Step 3: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to pinpoint changes in land use (land-based catchment pollution that could be associated with changes in the quality of water) Step 4: Conduct ground truthing to identify visible signs of water quality changes such as extremely foul odour, turbidity, dead fish, and loss of biodiversity in the rivers. Step 5: In undertaking the diagnostic assessment of the facility, consideration must be given to the below factors that tend to exacerbate the poor water quality: • The overall integrity and functioning of the WWTWs and industrial facilities; • Challenges associated with power cuts and failures; and • Land-based activities and the overall management of the catchment. Note: Malfunctioning sewage pump stations and associated infrastructure may form part of direct pollutants to the watercourse and should be addressed as part of overall catchment management of pollution. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Planning Phase Step 1: Request local government officials (municipal as well as Provincial DWS/CMAs and DFFE Offices) and local NGOs and community forums responsible for assisting with identifying point sources of pollution to guide on available regulatory processes. Step 2: Investigate other sources of pollution and poor water quality e.g., non-point sources of pollution. Assessment Phase Step1: Undertake the following: o Analysis of the historical data (water quality) to see the trend and reference point. o Collect the final effluent water samples from the sources, i.e., WWTW & industrial facility. o Collect monthly water quality samples from the resource i.e., River: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 39 - 1 upstream of the WWTW and industrial facility discharge points. - 1 downstream of the WWTW and industrial facility discharge points. o Have samples analysed at an accredited laboratory to determine the water quality at the sources and resources, respectively. Step 2: Undertake the following: o Compare laboratory-generated water quality data to the expected state for the identification of areas of concern. o Data analysis should be compared against the RQOs or Resource Water Quality Objectives (RWQOs), or Aquatic Ecosystem Water Quality Standards if RQOs/RWQOs have not yet been established for that catchment. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives Define clear rehabilitation objectives based on information and data gathered from Phases 1 and 2. Common objectives are to manage and prevent poor effluent from WWTWs and industrial facilities from discharging into water resources i.e., rivers. PHASE 4: Execution The following steps must be followed by practitioners for the rehabilitation of water quality activities: Step 1: Implement environmentally sustainable solutions through stakeholder engagements, communication within the water sector and between government departments sector, and between DFFE and other relevant government departments. Step 2: Undertake the following: o Ensure treatment of effluent from point sources prior to discharge; o Effluent which does not meet the discharge standards should be temporarily stored for further intervention and/or treatment; and o Monitor the effluent before discharge to ensure that it is in accordance with the DWS Special Effluent Standards. Step 3: Undertake the following: o Implement surface water management around the WWTWs and industrial facilities; o Install cut-off trenches around the facilities to separate clean and dirty water and direct clean water back into natural drainage lines and the natural environment; and o The dirty water channels should be drained to an emergency holding dam for treatment. Step 4: Construct temporary berms along the rivers to prevent further offsite migration/discharge of effluent ending into the river. The primary response however should be to improve the efficacy and capacity of the WWTWs, to avoid future substandard discharges. Box 3 contains information on other known methods that should be considered for poor water quality associate with effluent discharge from WWTW. Box 3 Complement the treatment at WWTWs running at capacity or having treatment challenges with floating treatment wetlands, constructed wetlands, microbial treatment, and algae as phytoremediation to be integrated upon feasibility investigation. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 40 Note: In general, the approach of DWS to water quality management is to promote the reduction of discharges of waste or water-containing waste directly into water resources. Where waste discharges are unavoidable, the impact on other users, water resources and the public are controlled by specifying the permissible levels and concentrations of the constituents of the discharge in the conditions of the authorisation. In the case of emergency situations, where harmful substances are accidentally or negligently discharged into water resources, the NWA (Chapter 3, Part 5, Section 20) provides for those who have caused the pollution responsible for remedying its effects. However, Catchment Management Agencies may, where necessary, accelerate the clean-up process by arranging for the work to be done by others and recovering any costs incurred by the responsible party. At present, all pollution incidents must be reported to the DWS so that appropriate responses can be co-ordinated, in conjunction with the National Disaster Management Centre and the relevant emergency services and disaster management centres. Ultimately this responsibility will be passed on to the catchment management agencies. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Step 1: • Undertake monthly water quality monitoring in the rivers depending on the volume discharge, local municipal by-laws, and the type of permit allowed; • Continuously assess WWTWs and industrial facilities to assist with defining the quality of the water and extend to which treatment is required (records of up to a year are desirable to characterise the state of the facilities). Step 2: Monitoring parameters for WWTWs: • Nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), and bacteria (E.coli or coliforms). Monitoring parameters for industries: • Metal concentrations and distributions at least once every 3-5 years for industrial facilities; • Metal concentrations in tissues of fish/mussels (bio-accumulation) at least once every 3-5 years. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Note: The expected outcomes of monitoring and evaluation can be achieved through the use of available knowledge hubs on emerging pathogens and/or CECs emanating from pharmaceutical industries, agricultural runoff, WWTWs, etc. Pesticide residues, transformation products and endocrine disruptors in rivers should be considered for monitoring, where applicable. The outputs of monitoring should be reported to the relevant international frameworks i.e., SDGs, GBF. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 41 • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation, including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 2: Faecal Sludge Management Background on Faecal and Sewage Sludge Management. Approximately 3 billion people globally rely on on-site sanitation systems (Strande et al., 2014). This number is growing exponentially owing to rapid urbanisation occurring across the globe and is expected to reach 5.5 billion people by 2030 (DWS, 2021). Almost 61% of households in South Africa have access to sewer networks, with 36% dependent on on-site sanitation systems, mainly septic tanks, ventilated improved pit latrines (VIPs) and 4% practising open defecation (WRC, 2020). However, 10% of households (507 732) served by on-site sanitation technologies have full pits (STATS SA, 2019) – which could lead to people resorting to open defecation. The challenges experienced in the sanitation sector have shown that waterborne sanitation (sewerage) and wastewater treatment are not sustainable due to factors such as water shortages, technical capacity gaps, low billing and collection rates, and the lack of resources to adequately maintain these systems. The conventional sewer networks and wastewater treatment facilities cannot keep up with rapid urbanisation and population growth. As an example, in the Msunduzi Municipality (Pietermaritzburg), the incidence of serious sewage pollution (defined as more than 10 000 E. coli per 100 ml) detected in weekly stream and river monitoring samples is now five times more prevalent than it was 25 years ago, the average incidence having moved from 10% to over 50% (DWS, 2021). Characteristic of faecal and sewage sludge Faecal sludge (FS) can be defined as a mixture of human excreta, water, urine, and solid wastes (i.e., toilet paper or other cleansing and hygiene materials) that are disposed of in on-site sanitation systems such as ventilated and non-ventilated improved pit latrines, conservancy tanks, septic tanks, chemical toilets, and flush bucket toilet (DWS, 2021). The management of human excreta from on-site systems, excluding package plants along the sanitation value chain includes containment, collection, transportation, treatment, safe disposal, or reuse (DWS, 2023). Sewage sludge is defined as a product of the wastewater treatment process where the liquids and solids are separated. The solids are then treated physically and chemically to produce a semi-solid and nutrient-rich product known as biosolids (US EPA, 2020). The raw sewage goes through this treatment process, separating the solids and liquids before the cleaned effluent is discharged into water bodies such as the sea, streams, and estuaries (Pöykiö et al., 2019). Faecal Sludge differs from other sludges, which are products of the wastewater treatment process i.e., wastewater sludge. Faecal Sludge might contain solid objects like stones, wood, plastics, baby diapers, paper, or even solid waste where pits are used as rubbish pits. Where FS is collected in industrial areas, it may contain contaminants, such as heavy metals or fats/oils (Singh et al., 2017). The WWTW processes play an important part and vary from plant to plant. Therefore, the impact of FS on a WWTW depends on: • WWTW process and technology; • WWTW capacity in relation to FS quantity (in some cases, it is insignificant); • The type of FS and mode of transport; and • Effluent quality criteria. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 42 Two types or routes of sludge generation are illustrated in Figure 15 below as follows: Figure 15: Routes of sludge generation Source: modified after EAI, 2024 On-site sanitation needs to be safely managed throughout the faecal sludge service chain (Figure 16), which entails capturing faecal sludge from the toilet, containment, transportation, treatment, and disposal or safe reuse. In South Africa, faecal sludge management and sewer systems would complement the wastewater treatment systems that are regulated by the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). Figure 16: The Faecal Sludge Management Service Chain Source: DWS, 2023 PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Undertake a desktop assessment to identify the WWTWs and industries whose sewage or sludge negatively impacts the water quality of water resources. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities MSW – Municipal Solid Waste Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 43 as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Request historical water quality data and/or incident reports from relevant authorities (for water quality trends and patterns). Step 4: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to pinpoint changes in land use (land-based catchment pollution that could be associated with changes in the quality of water). Step 5: In undertaking the diagnostic assessment of the facilities, consideration must be given to the below factors that tend to exacerbate the poor water quality of water resources: • The overall integrity and functioning of the WWTWs and industrial facilities; • Challenges associated with power cuts and failures; and • Land-based activities and the overall management of the catchment. Note: Malfunctioning sewer pump stations may form part of direct pollutants to the watercourse and should be addressed as part of overall catchment management of pollution. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct a ground-truthing survey to accurately describe the WWTW in order to identify where the sewage impacting the water resources is emanating from. The description should include and determine the following key factors which could contribute to pollution/contamination: o categorisation of works and operators as follows: - is the works categorised? - are all operators categorised? Note: request relevant forms for categorisation of both the works and the operators in terms of the present Regulation No. R 2834, in terms of Section 26 read in conjunction with Section 12A of the National Water Act, 1956 (Act 54 of 1956) for the erection, enlargement, operation and registration of water care works, was promulgated in an attempt to ensure that operators with relevant qualifications were running the different categories of water care works. o method of disposal of screenings and grit, i.e., burial or incineration, etc; o location of the disposal site and/or the name of the solid waste dump; o State of primary sedimentation tanks; o state the number of septic tanks, the volume of each, average depth of tank(s), methods of periodical desludging, methods of disposal of the sludge removed and method of disposal of the overflow, if not intended for further processing to french drains, soakaway, etc. o state of biological filtration systems in terms of the number of cubic meters of settled sewage per cubic meter of media per day; o state of activated sludge systems, design information and method of operation; o state of humus tanks or secondary sedimentation tanks; o state of sludge handling in terms of the following: - quantity of wet sludge to be produced per day; - method of treatment of surplus activated sludge discharged, prior to its disposal on land or to drying beds or by other means; - land disposal of wet sludge to be used and state the area of land in hectares; - total area of any sludge drying beds; - the way drainage from the beds or other separators is dealt with; and - the way dried sludge is finally disposed of on land, i.e., by incineration or burial. o pre-treatment units ahead of the oxidation pond systems and state their capacity; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 44 o Tertiary treatment - state basic design details, where applicable for screens, filters, reedbed systems and maturation pond systems; and o disinfection of the final effluent - if by chlorination, give details of the method and the contact time in the pond or contact tank; if by any other method, Ultraviolet (UV) light, ozone, etc. Step 2: Conduct a ground-truthing survey to accurately describe the reticulation system in order identify where the sludge impacting the water resources is emanating from. The description should include and determine the following key factors which could contribute to pollution/contamination: o the way the area is serviced in terms of the types of sanitation systems, for example: - pit latrines; - bucket system; - conservancy tanks; and - septic tanks and french drains. o percentage of the area which is sewered. o type of network installed, for example: - standard reticulation; and - small bore system; o Location of sewers, for example: - mid-block; and - standard. o Nature of sewage: - domestic component - projections (no. of persons), i.e., high- and low-income permanent population including holiday makers. - industrial component in terms of the following: ▪ daily volumes/expected volume treated; ▪ type of industrial waste; ▪ mainly organic; ▪ organic/inorganic; ▪ heavy metals; ▪ mixture; and ▪ names of industries contributing to the volume (and locally treated), including problem constituents received from each. o Hydraulic and organic loading of high-income, low-income, holiday makers and industrial components. Step 3: Conduct a ground-truthing survey to accurately describe the disposal of sludge and solid waste to identify where factors impacting the water resources are emanating from. The description should include the following key factors which could contribute to pollution/contamination: o sludge in terms of quantity, tons per day and tons per year; o analyses of sludge o solid waste in terms of quantity, tons per day and tons per year; o analyses of solid waste (composition and percentages); o categories of sludges according to the Guidelines: Permissible Utilisation and Disposal of Sewage Sludge, Edition 1 August 1997. o any contracts for removal of sludges. Step 4: Evaluate the final waste disposal as follows: o Determine where the waste will be disposed of: - disposal on land i.e., ponds/dams - disposal on irrigated areas; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 45 - disposal to into groundwater, i.e., recharging of aquifers; - disposal to surface water, i.e., estuaries or lagoons; - discharge to sea, i.e., surf zone, deep-sea pipelines; - discharge to air – evaporation; - disposal at municipal works or by private contractor; - disposal in contained areas; and - disposal on mined-out areas (underground). Note: The waste disposal practice needs to be fully evaluated taking into account various norms and standards. Before an exemption allowing a certain disposal practice can be issued, it is imperative that the practice is shown to have a minimal environmental impact and that the practice has the minimum effect on the health and interest of other water users in the environment (DWS, 2003). Step 5: Depending on the site (i.e, dams/ponds) and purpose for disposal, the user should consider the factors contained in Table 5 and Appendix A. Note: Step 2-5 above have been detailed as per the DWS Aide Mémoire of 2003 for Sewage Treatment Works (DWS, 2003) which is aimed at providing local authorities and owners of treatment works with information on the requirements to apply for a license in terms of section 27(1) of the National Water Act 1998 (Act No 36 of 1998) and to assist in drawing up a water quality management report in accordance with an established approach acceptable to all the regulating authorities concerned. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives Define clear rehabilitation objectives based on information and data gathered from Phases 1 and 2. Common objectives are to manage and prevent faecal and sewage sludge from posing a threat to public health, the domestic and wider environment, and polluting groundwater. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Identify and employ the appropriate rehabilitation methods or techniques based on the site- specific extent, type and factors contributing to the impacted areas. Step 2: Employ one or a combination of the below available sewage and faecal sludge techniques (Figure 17) as prescribed and covered in the National Faecal Sludge Management Conceptual Framework developed by DWS (2021) as well as the National Faecal Sludge Management Strategy (2023). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 46 Figure 17: Sewage and faecal sludge techniques and treatment methods Source: modified after EAI, 2024 Preliminary Treatment includes simple processes such as screening (usually by bar screens) and grit removal (constant velocity channels) to remove the gross solid pollution. Primary Treatment 1 entails separating solids from liquids, sometimes referred to as dewatering. There are several different options for primary treatment including planted or unplanted drying beds and technologies such as the following: • Centrifugation: A mechanical treatment (often used in wastewater treatment), • Settling-thickening tank: A non-mechanical rectangular tank where solids settle at the bottom. Scum rises to the top, and liquid (called supernatant) is discharged through an outlet pipe, • Imhoff tank: A V-shaped chamber which acts as a settling tank (sedimentation); and MSW – Municipal Solid Waste Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 47 • Geobag: a non-mechanical filtration system using geotextiles. Secondary Treatment 2 entails treatment and removal of common pollutants, usually by a biological process which includes stabilization ponds, drying beds, and constructed wetlands, while mechanical treatment involves mechanized processes such as activated sludge, up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors, and anaerobic digesters. Tertiary Treatment 3 or final treatment involve the treatment of the sludge that results from primary treatment usually for removal of specific pollutants, e.g. nitrogen or phosphorous, or specific industrial pollutants. There are various types of treatment 4 for the faecal sludge that result from the primary treatment, including: • Co-composting: sludge is mixed with organic waste. • Deep row entrenchment: sludge is buried in deep trenches and covered with soil (can act as a fertilizer for trees). • Vermicomposting: earthworms feeding on the sludge convert it to compost, which could be further enhanced by adding waste such as garden waste. • Anaerobic digester: used for the digestion of organic matter in the presence of anaerobic microorganism with resultant products of slurry and biogas. • Solar drying: sludge deposited in either concrete or greenhouse-type structures is dried by the sun. • Shallow trenches: sludge is mixed with soil in a shallow trench. • Solar sludge oven: an insulated box that reaches high temperatures to dry the sludge, which can then be used as a soil conditioner; and • Black soldier fly larvae: black soldier fly larvae feed on decomposing waste, but the product is insect protein, which could be used in fishmeal. The resultant product is not suitable for agriculture with this method. Note: • The decision about which type of primary treatment is appropriate depends on the available space, capacity, and physical conditions (e.g. depth of groundwater, rainfall levels, proximity of human settlement, etc) at the treatment site. • In some instances, co-treatment is possible, depending on the type of technology and available space (e.g. for septic tank waste). However, co-treatment may require some adjustments, like pre-treatment, to make wastewater treatment systems suitable. It is important to note that without the extra pre-treatment, the wastewater treatment systems could be damaged. • FS from VIPs should not be treated through conventional wastewater systems as it is materially different from wastewater or septic tank waste. • Singh et al. (2017) have developed a decision matrix for selecting appropriate types for both primary and sludge treatment. • After treatment, faecal sludge can be used beneficially in several ways, for example: as part of a compost mix, as a soil conditioner, or as fuel if made into briquettes. It is important to note that appropriate reuse options are limited by the method used for sludge treatment and by the type of sanitation system from which the faecal sludge is derived. After treatment and before use the faecal sludge product needs to be categorised to determine appropriate beneficial use. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 48 PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Step 1: Undertake waste quantity, quality, surface, and groundwater monitoring as detailed in Table 6 as follows: Table 6: Waste quantity, quality, surface, and groundwater monitoring. Land disposal on ponds or dams Land disposal in irrigation areas Disposal to surface water Discharge to a lagoon or estuary Discharge to sea Disposal to groundwater Waste quantity (daily or monthly volumes) and number of days discharged. Quantity and frequency of waste discharged: • daily • seasonal variation Waste volume Waste quality monitoring and analyses in terms of pH, conductivity, suspended solids (SS), COD, NH3, NO3, Ortho phosphate (as P), Faecal. Coliforms Groundwater quality monitoring (macro analyses - major anions and cations) in relation to ponds or dams Groundwater quality monitoring (macro analyses - major anions and cations) in relation to irrigated area • quality of minor/sub-catchment catchment before discharge into major catchment (analyses); • quality of major catchment river upstream of minor river (analyses); and • quality of major catchment river downstream of confluence of minor river (analyses) Groundwater quality monitoring (macro analyses - major anions and cations) Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation, including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location and date. Scenario 3: Rehabilitation of operations and improvement of the quality of AMD polluted water AMD can simply be explained as the water that is polluted from being in contact with mining activities and footprints. It is characterised by the increase in acidity (low pH), increased metal concentrations, increased sulphate concentrations (depending on what mineral is mined), and/or increased suspended solids. Below are some of the known impacts of AMD on water resources: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 49 • AMD decanting into rivers and streams and impacting aquatic ecosystems due to ecotoxicity. • Corrosion of metal equipment and appliances • Coloured waters in streams i.e., yellow = iron oxides, white = aluminium, black = manganese • Water is unsuitable for use without treatment and only if all water quality parameters are considered. The main sources of AMD are open-cast coal mines, exposed coal seams and gold mines. To date, some of the known affected areas are Mpumalanga (Witbank, Middelburg, etc.), Northern KwaZulu Natal (Vryheid, Paulpietersburg), and gold mining areas (East & West rand). Keep in mind that AMD water is considered hazardous waste due to the inherent toxic properties of the chemicals and should be disposed of through the hazardous waste stream. Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of AMD water decanting from opencast workings into rivers PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the sources of AMD, i.e., AMD decanting from opencast pit or underground operations. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Conduct a desktop assessment to determine the conditions of the open-cast pit or underground operations Step 4: At a desktop level and from existing information, assess the conditions of the open-cast pit or underground operations to determine the following: o Dewatering rates (if there is such an activity taking place); o Seepage rate into the operations; o Recharge rate into the operations; o Groundwater levels; and o Lowest topographic level (where the regional piezometric head of the aquifer intersects the topographical setting – This is important because decant/seepage point(s) are normally located here. Step 5: Collect groundwater samples from the operations in question and submit them to an accredited lab for groundwater quality analysis. The results from the analysis will inform the treatment methods/options to be employed for water that will be dewatered from the operations. Step 6: Collect waste rock material samples for geochemical assessment. The results of the assessment will inform whether the backfill material is suitable to be used for backfilling operations. The material to be used for backfilling must be non-acid generating. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Rehabilitation of AMD water emanating from the operations trigger Section 21 water uses Step 2: The person undertaking rehabilitation must determine the water uses likely to be triggered by the rehabilitation activities. Examples are: o Section 21 (j) – dewatering of groundwater. o Section 21 (g) – temporary storage of water pumped. o Section 21 (f) – discharging the treated water. o Section 21 (c) & (i) for decants in regulated areas. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 50 o Exemption from Regulation 4(c) of GN704 for backfilling activities into the operations Step 3: The person undertaking rehabilitation activities must determine the following: o Geohydrological conditions of the operations terms of the geology, aquifers, inflows and outflow rates, and groundwater levels. o Rates of inflow & outflow in the operations. o Geochemical assessment detailing the type of waste material to be used for backfilling. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives Define clear rehabilitation objectives based on information gathered in Phases 1 and 2. Below are some of the common aims and objectives of the rehabilitation of opencast pit which decants into water resources: • Pump water from the operations to reduce and maintain groundwater levels below decanting levels; • Treat AMD water to acceptable standards and reuse; and • Backfill the opencast pit and use the rehabilitated land for other purposes i.e., agricultural purposes. PHASE 4: Execution Figures 18 and 19 present both passive and active methods that can be employed for rehabilitation of decanting mining operations. Other known prevalent method for treating AMD contamination is the addition of alkaline reagents such as lime, limestone, sodium carbonate, or sodium hydroxide. This treatment aims at neutralizing acidic water and the precipitation of heavy metals. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 51 Figure 19: Active Treatment Methods. Intheeventtherearehighvolumesof AMDwaterencountered(>5ℓ/s), treatmentstrategiesmustbe investigatedandimplementedinorder torenderthewatersuitableforreuse TREATMENT STRATEGY Ifthereisstillaresidualtreatedwater, onemustevaluateandnegotiate alternativesoptionswithDWSi.e., dischargeofsuchwaterbackintothe waterresource DISCHARGE INTO WATER RESOURCE •Pump/dewaterAMDwater fromtheoperationstoensure thehydraulicheadisreduced belowdecantinglevels •The pumped water must be captured, retained, and managed within the mine water systemsi.e., lined evaporation dams PUMP & TREAT •Intercept polluted seepagefrom the operations through concrete trenches •The design of the trench gradient must be such that the water is free-flowing without eroding the channel and polluting water resources SEEPAGE INTERCEPTION •Backfilltheoperationsusing materialsuchaswasterock materialthathasbeen subjectedtogeochemical testing •Thematerialshouldbenon- acidgenerating •Backfillingordepositionof materialbackintothe operationsmustfollowa scientificallysoundbackfilling methodology BACKFILLING Note: Consideration must be given to the passive treatment methods to include nature-based solutions i.e., constructed wetlands. Passive Treatment Methods Active Treatment Methods Figure 18: Passive Treatment Methods. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 52 PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring • Pump and/or dewatering – Monitor the groundwater levels within the operations daily and report to the DWS monthly. • Seepage Interception – monitor the quality of water at the trenches and downstream of the constructed wetland to assess the changes in the quality of water over time. • Backfilled opencast area - develop and implement a dedicated monitoring programme to monitor the groundwater level recovery and pit water quality of the rehabilitated/backfilled area. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation, including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location and date. 5.3.4 Special considerations to be applied for Rehabilitation using Passive Treatment Methods Consideration must be given to the passive treatment methods to include nature-based solutions i.e., constructed wetlands. 5.4 HABITAT 5.4.1 Description Habitat includes the physical structure of a watercourse and the associated vegetation in relation to the bed of the watercourse (NWA, 1998). Physical habitat excludes the physiochemical characteristics of the stream water, i.e., water chemistry, clarity, temperature, quantity, and light intensity (Belletti et al., 2017). Instead, it includes geomorphologic and biological characteristics that determine habitat structure and thus, have an impact on energy inputs. According to Kaufmann et al. (1999), six characteristics are the primary determinants of physical habitat structure provided by rivers, namely stream size and channel dimensions; channel gradient; channel substrate size and type; habitat complexity and cover; vegetation and structure of the riparian zone; and channel-riparian interactions. 5.4.2 Types of Habitat Impact Table 7: Types of factors influencing the habitat. Properties Type of Impacts Stream size and channel dimensions Anthropogenic activities can change channel dimensions by altering high discharge frequency, i.e., floods Channel gradient Anthropogenic activities affecting bedload, or factors affecting stream, can change channel gradient. Additionally, channelization can directly alter effective channel gradient Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 53 Properties Type of Impacts Channel substrate size and type Anthropogenic activities that cause an increase in upland erosion which can result in an increase in sediment supply to stream channels. The increase in fine sediments decreases mean substrate size, which leads to channel destabilization, leading to channel aggradation and accelerated channel migration. Habitat complexity and cover Geomorphologic units (such as pool-riffle and step-pool sequences), channel sinuosity and hydraulic roughness contribute to processes that dissipate energy of water flow in stream channels. Additionally, plants and woody debris along the stream banks also contribute to energy dissipation. Vegetation and structure in the riparian zone Overgrazing in the riparian zone can alter vegetation type, as well as the amount of cover and forage, increase erosion and introduce more nutrients and faecal coliform microorganisms to the stream through manure. Other factors include development (e.g., housing), logging and dams. Channel-riparian interactions Anthropogenic stream channel changes such as riprap, bank armouring structures and culverts are candidate causes. These alter flow, erosion, and deposition patterns, which result in habitat alterations. 5.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of disturbed habitat due to disturbances caused by anthropogenic activities PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the cause of the channel disturbance/change i.e., at the site, upstream of the site or within the broader catchment Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Investigate the history and the rate of change over the years. This can be achieved through communicating with residents within the area or historical mapping. Step 4: Obtain historical data, such as aerial photographs, to evaluate the geomorphological and vegetation issues (e.g., erosion and invasive alien vegetation). Step 5: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m), satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to obtain more recent images dating from the last 10 to 20 years for certain areas. Step 6: Obtain historical flow data from DWS as an indication of long-term flow changes. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Note: • Assessment should consider the larger-scale impacts that may affect rehabilitation measures. • The specific scale would be dependent on the site-specific conditions. Step 1: Note of current activities impacting riparian areas must be taken, as well as historical impacts and those that may potentially further affect the riparian zone due to river crossing construction/development activities. Step 2: Aspects such as topography, vegetation and alluvial soils should be utilized to delineate riparian areas. Step 3: Special attention should be paid to re-vegetation within the watercourse. Step 4: For aquatic assessment, a visual consideration of the condition must be noted. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 54 Step 5: Habitat integrity and suitability for aquatic macro-invertebrates and fish assemblages both up and downstream should also be assessed. Water quality should also be considered as the habitat may be rehabilitated but poor water quality will lower biodiversity or absence thereof. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives Straightforward intervention objectives must be defined and set. Common examples of aims and objectives required for ecological management are to: • Provide immediate rehabilitation measures, such as bank stabilization and reprofiling, restoration of topographical sequences and leveling, and restoration/protection of indigenous vegetation to be implemented immediately after the construction of river crossings. • Provide the implementation of management measures during the post-rehabilitation phases of the development to ensure that there are no ongoing impacts, i.e., incision and erosion due to construction activities. • Put measures in place for the control of alien vegetation and soil integrity. • Ensure riparian vegetation cover within the watercourse and allow for suitable vegetation to be reinstated within riparian and terrestrial areas adjacent to the river crossing which was affected by construction activities. • To provide suitable monitoring guidelines to ensure long-term sustainability and determine the overall rehabilitation success of the rehabilitation works. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Communication and collaboration between the water sector, DFFE, and other relevant governmental departments must be ensured. Step 2: Apply for a WUL in terms of NWA, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) to obtain authorization of any activities within the riparian zone. Step 3: Similarly, obtain an environmental authorization (through carrying out a Basic Assessment and Environmental Impact Assessment) from DFFE in terms of NEMA to ensure compliance with regulations relating to the restriction of conducting activities within the riparian zone. Step 4: Minimization of impacts from the anthropogenic construction activities Step 5: Developed areas are reshaped and leveled to reassemble pre-construction environments as precisely as possible Step 6: Riverbank reconstruction to tie in with existing riverbanks. Step 7: Re-vegetation of disturbed areas Step 8: Upon decommissioning, all construction material must be removed from riparian areas. Step 9: Re-profiling and sloping of areas vulnerable to erosion and incision as an outcome of construction activities. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Upon the completion/implementation of the rehabilitation work, a suitably qualified specialist should continue monitoring habitat [channel modification, habitat cover, vegetation cover (indigenous vs. alien invasive) and encroachment] monthly for three months. Subsequently, one monitoring site visit after six months of rehabilitation works completion is recommended. Lastly, the final sign-off of rehabilitation works should be completed after one year. Monitoring should include the following parameters: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 55 • Determine if the reprofiled areas are compatible with the natural environment. • Assess surface and slope stability and adequate functioning of the rehabilitation structures. • Determination of erosion levels. • Ground cover percentage calculation within revegetated areas, including vegetation basal cover, litter, and rock. • Determine whether any improvement in aquatic biota communities/diversity occurred. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objective. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.4.4 Special considerations to be applied for the Rehabilitation of Habitat Consideration must be given to the below list during the rehabilitation of the habitat: • Scientific buffer zones (i.e., 1:100-year floodline); • Plant Species plans must be drawn up by a landscape architect or botanist and terrestrial ecologist, submitted for approval and implemented; and • Nature-based solutions i.e., constructed wetlands should be considered as part of rehabilitation options. 5.5 BIOTA 5.5.1 Description Biota/aquatic biota is described as the community of plants and animals with a biotic integrity, which reflects the health, community structure and distribution, which is dependent on habitat (DWAF, 1999). A habitat is made of physical (abiotic) and living (biotic) factors. Abiotic factors are physical, non-living components that affect living organisms. Abiotic factors include: • Light intensity; • Moisture (availability of water); • Humidity; • Salinity; • pH; and • Temperature Biotic factors are the living parts of the ecosystem with which an organism must interact. Biotic factors include: • Predators; • Prey; • Food sources; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 56 • Parasites. Examples of biota are as follows: • Burchell's redfin (Pseudobarbus burchelli) which is a freshwater fish species in the family Cyprinidae. P. burchelli which are recognised as “critical endangered’’ species. • Palmiet plant (Prionium serratum) in the family of Juncaceae and play an important ecological role in stabilising the riverbed and riverbanks from erosion. 5.5.2 Types of Biota Impacts The impacts on riparian biota are primarily a result of three changes, namely; • Changes to the river flow pattern; • Change in suspended sediment; and • Damage to riparian vegetation. According to WRC (2016a), the most common form of human-induced disturbance of sediment processes is the construction of features/barriers that alter the hydraulics and geomorphic characteristics of the river channel and floodplain, which negatively impacts the lateral and longitudinal connectivity of watercourses. These features/barriers also alter the flow velocities which cause changes in the physical habitats and, thereby, the hydraulic biotopes upon which biota depend. Table 8 below summarizes human induced disturbances on biota. Table 8: Summary of human-induced disturbances on biota Human Induced Disturbances Description Dams and Weirs • Dams and weirs create barriers to the migration of instream biota up and down the river • Dams and weirs have effects on physical habitat and biota immediately above the dam; and connectivity, habitat, and biota below the dam • Weirs have negative impact on the ecology of a stream when they prevent the migration of biota up and down the river. This can be mitigated by including a “fishway”, a channel carrying the low flow with a lot of baffle plates to slow down the velocity of the water that biota can still migrate over the weir • Other major impact (physical habitat) is that there is scouring and armouring downstream of the structure and sedimentation upstream of the structure. This change in habitat have major impacts on the biota, both instream and riparian and impacts flora. River diversions • River diversions cause disconnection from natural floodplains, loss of biodiversity and loss of natural habitat diversity, and give rise to serious flooding to adjacent areas Roads, Drifts and Bridges • Similarly, to dams and weirs, these structures create migration barriers to biota Bank protection structures • Eroding, undercutting banks and/or migrating active channels are often engineered and stabilised. These stabilised banks can prevent the natural migration of the active channel, and thereby reduce physical habitat diversity and dynamics and reduces allochthonous production. Grazing and trampling • Excessive grazing and trampling of the riparian areas reduce vegetation and habitat complexity and is usually associated with a reduction in vegetation robustness Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 57 Human Induced Disturbances Description Sand and gravel mining • Sediment removal disturbs the riverbed and banks, degrading habitat condition, especially where the sediment is being removed from the active channel and marginal zone • In the case the frequency of removal exceeds recovery rate, the zone of removal will remain a disturbed, degraded area that often supports only disturbance tolerant weedy species, with low levels of faunal diversity 5.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota Weirs, dams, road bridges and causeways are some of the identified major existing migration barriers in rivers. The construction and in some instances, the removal/upgrading of some of these structures/features cause a reduction in the numbers and distribution of many migratory fish and invertebrate species throughout South Africa. According to WRC (2007), most indigenous species in the country carry out annual migrations within river systems, amongst others, to: • Optimise feeding; • Promote dispersal; • Avoid unfavourable conditions; and • Enhance reproductive success. Guidelines is provided to water resource managers (using the below scenarios) to address the following impacts: • Scenario 1: Impacts of barriers on biota migratory routes can often be addressed through fishways/ladders and fish lifts at old and new structures. Scenario 1: Re-establish biota migratory routes (i.e., fishways) PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Determine whether the river affected is an inland or coastal river denoting them using A and B respectively Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: At a desktop level, identify the river in which the biota migratory routes are affected. Step 4: Describe the specific details of the river affected - Primary or Secondary River. Step 5: Describe the specific reach of the river affected – Upper, Middle and Lower reaches. Step 6: Describe the migratory region in which the affected river is located according to the following regions; Inland Migratory Regions (A): o Orange-Vaal region o Lower and Upper Limpopo region o Inkomati and Pongola region o KZN inland region o Cape inland region Coastal Migratory Regions (B): o South-East region Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 58 o South Coast region o West Coast region Step 7: Describe the types of migratory aquatic biota species affected by instream barriers, specifying whether they are inland or coastal species. Table 9 provide examples of some of the common inland and coastal species 16 : Table 9: Inland and coastal migratory aquatic biota species. Inland Species (A) Coastal Species (B) Description of Inland and Coastal Species • Potamodromous • Catadromous (including diadromous and amphidromous) • Potamodromous • Catadromous • Potamodromous - entire life cycle and migration is completed within freshwater zones for spawning, feeding, dispersion after spawning, colonisation after droughts • Diadromous - migrate between fresh water and the sea or saline waters. Within this category, there are two forms of diadromy found in South African coastal rivers. They include: o Catadromous - species which spend most of their lives in fresh water and migrate to the sea (or estuaries) as adults to breed. o Amphidromous - diadromous species, which migrate both as adults and juveniles between fresh water and the sea (and vice versa) PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Assess the ecological need for a fishway at an instream barrier. Step 2: In the event there is no need for a fishway, consider the following alternatives and mitigation measures: o Artificial spawning beds; o Captive breeding; and o Capture and transport. Below are some of the reasons to consider other alternatives or mitigation options: o Excessive height or poor design of the structure; o High financial costs due to the length of fishway required; and o Biological and/or physical constraints of migrants. Note: Fishways tend to be expensive and time-consuming to construct. If there is a migration barrier and a fishway is not feasible, you have to bear in mind that these mitigation measures are not a once- off. These measures are more applicable when a species has been removed from a system, such as after a spill, and you want to re-introduce them to where they occurred previously. Step 3: If there is a need for a fishway, quantify the ecological impact of the instream barrier on migratory species present – i.e., the importance of providing a fishway at the barrier. Step 4: Once the need and importance are identified and determined, conduct a cost-benefit analysis of an effective fishway to be designed and constructed at the instream barrier. Step 5: Prepare a motivation and secure appropriate funding. 16 WRC. 2007. Guidelines for the planning, design, and operation of fishways in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 59 PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation of the impacts of instream barriers on biota migratory routes must be clearly defined and set. The objectives for rehabilitation must be informed by the data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Some of the most common aims and objectives of rehabilitation of instream barriers are to: • Provide migration routes to some species for spawning, feeding, dispersion after spawning, colonisation after droughts; and • Provide migration routes between fresh water and the sea or saline waters. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Based on the information gathered, the relevant specialist, i.e., the Engineer and/or Aquatic Specialist must design a fishway. Step 2: The fishway to be designed will depend on the site conditions. Based on the conditions, the relevant specialist, i.e., the Engineer and/or Aquatic Specialist must design a – coastal or inland fishway – based on the below general hydraulics (Table 10). 17 Table 10: General hydraulics of a fishway. Inland Fishway (A) Target species and size range Maximum Turbulence (Watts/m 3 ) Maximum drop between pools (mm) Maximum water velocity (m/s) Very small catadromous fish (25 – 40 mm) within 50 km of the estuary 150 75 1.2 Small fish, including catadromous species and other (> 40 mm) and weak swimmers, 50 to 120 km from the estuary 180 100 1.4 Costal Fishway (B) Target species and size range Maximum Turbulence (Watts/m 3 ) Maximum drop between pools (mm) Maximum water velocity (m/s) Very small fish (<40 mm) and/or weak swimmers 150 100 1.4 Small to medium sized fish (40 - 100 mm) and/or moderate swimmers 180 150 1.7 Large sized fish (>100 mm) and/or strong swimmers 220 200 2.0 Step 3: The fishway designs must be informed by the following key factors for both inland and coastal species: • Species composition; • Types of migration; • Season/time period species are functional; • Swimming ability of species; 17 WRC. 2007. Guidelines for the planning, design, and operation of fishways in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 60 • Swimming speed of species; • Endurance of species; • Physiological factors of species, i.e., aerobic vs anaerobic muscles; and • Current velocities and turbulence factors. Step 4: The fishway design process must be supported by and include the following: • Ecological, hydrological and engineering studies; • Analysis of the barrier hydraulics; • Selection of a suitable location for the proposed fishway; • Hydraulic analysis of the selected fishway type(s); and • Provision for maintenance of the fishway. Step 5: Identify the appropriate fishway design suitable for the site-specific conditions (inland and coastal regions), i.e., vertical slot, notched weir/or orifice, sloping baffle. Step 6: The fishway must be constructed according to the approved engineering standards and must be informed by the selected designs, dimensions and all the results of analysis conducted in Step 3. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting Monitoring Table 11 contains the key biological/ecological and physical parameters prescribed by WRC 18 , which must be monitored downstream and upstream of the fishway. Table 11: Key biological, ecological, and physical parameters prescribed for monitoring Source: WRC, 2007 Biological/Ecological Parameters Physical Parameters • Size and numbers of species that successfully pass through the biota barrier. • Size and numbers of species that attempt to use the fishway (i.e., are actively migrating and enter the down-stream end of the fishway). • Size and numbers of species that actively migrate but are blocked by the barrier in question. • Proportion of species that enter the fishway. • Water discharge rates down the biota barrier. • Internal hydraulics in the biota barrier i.e., speed, turbulence, and depths. • The change of discharge down the biota barrier. • Levels of stream flow or stages of the flood hydrograph where peak migrations in the river take place. • The time of day/night/season) when migrations of the various species occur. • Water quality, i.e., temperature, conductivity, pH, turbidity. • Barometric pressure, air temperature. Note: The monitoring programme presented above is generic in nature and attempts to assess the performance of a fishway as per the scenario in question. The list of parameters in Table 11 is by no means exhaustive and is relevant to the scenario in question. It should be noted that carefully planned monitoring programmes and more sophisticated monitoring methods are required to assess the effectiveness of fishways in South Africa, to improve their design and to optimise their management. Monitoring programmes also vary from site to site depending on the site-specific conditions of the area affected. In addition, to better understand the environmental indicators that stimulate fish migrations, 18 WRC. 2007. Guidelines for the planning, design, and operation of fishways in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 61 a host of environmental parameters (abiotic and biotic) need to be measured during the monitoring period, which should be performed over months rather than weeks. It is recommended that the monitoring parameters to be developed by the users of the RMGs should be aligned to the gazetted RQOs of the area in question, as this is one of the critical RDM measures/tools for the protection of water resources. The monitoring parameters developed by the users should also form part of the River Eco-status Monitoring Programme (REMP), where applicable. REMP is a programme for monitoring the ecological conditions of the river ecosystems based on the drivers and responses in the river. REMP is aimed to establish the reference condition (usually a natural or close to natural condition) of the river or reach that will be used to assess the temporal conditions of that river or reach with the consideration of both the biotic (instream and riparian biota) and abiotic (hydrology, geomorphology, and physico-chemical conditions) factors of that river. Indices of REMP include: • South African Scoring System (SASS) – for macro-invertebrates • Macro-Invertebrate Response Assessment Index (MIRAI) – for macro-invertebrates • Fish Response Assessment Index (FRAI) – for fish • Vegetation Response Assessment Index (VEGRAI) – for riparian vegetation • Index of Habitat Integrity (IHI) – for habitat integrity • Hydrology Assessment Index (HAI) – for hydrology • Geomorphology Assessment Index (GAI) – for geomorphology • Physico-Chemical Assessment Index (PAI) – for physico-chemical Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.5.4 Special considerations to be applied for Rehabilitation of Biota Consideration must be given to the below list during the development of the Guidelines for biota: • Include the importance of protected species areas and consider connections between areas as corridors establishment. • The developed lists of priority for each characteristic, such as NFEPA and Strategic Water Resources. • Methods of fishing within river systems should be properly controlled. In addition, deserted fish nets that pose a threat to all water users should also be removed. Biological Response Indices Driver Indices Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 62 • Floating wetlands and scientific buffers for biodiversity and water quality enhancement. This also plays a role in pest controls on farms dams, and the betterment of conservation efforts, aesthetics, eco-tourism. 6. REMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD The River RMGs have been developed to address characteristics of watercourses, namely surface flow, interflow, groundwater flows, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota, through a phased approach. In implementing these guidelines, the following are recommended to users of the guidelines: Hydrology – surface flows and interflow: • Rehabilitation of impacts relating to flow regime such a surface flow and interflow must also include the reinstatement of flow drivers in the landscape. • Alien vegetation must be replaced with the appropriate indigenous vegetation to the specific areas. This is especially important when trees are removed, indigenous tree species must be brought in. Furthermore, alien plant management must be conducted in a phased approached both for eradication and revegetation. Revegetation and Re-planting Plans must be compiled and submitted to the DWS for approval. Geomorphology: • The identified objectives must be checked for feasibility and affordability. There must be a reasonable timeframe set to allow the river to respond to the rehabilitation actions. For instance, WRC (2004) adopted the Rutherfurd et. al. (2000) method of setting a timeframe: a short-term objective for the completion of the rehabilitation output and a long-term objective for evaluation of the effect of the work. • Rehabilitation linked to rivers should always take a system-based approach and not be isolated to a section of a river reach. Water Quality: • Rehabilitation activities relating to impacts on water quality must consider the priority areas which are sensitive and must be protected. These priority areas that must be protected are areas such as Strategic Water Source Areas and areas that were identified as NFEPA priorities. • Scientific buffer zones (1:100-year floodline) must be determined and implemented for water quality and biodiversity protection – when determining these buffers zones, the user must consult the Buffer Zone Guidelines (WRC, 2017). • Scientific buffer zones should ideally be integrated into the stormwater management system to address issues relating to debris and litter. Habitat and Biota: Consideration must be given to the below list during the rehabilitation of the habitat and biota: • Scientific buffer zones – when determining these buffers zones the user must consult the Buffer Zone Guidelines for Rivers, Wetlands and Estuaries compiled by WRC, 2017 - guidelines provide guidance for activities planned around and adjacent to water resources. They are to be used and applied as part of a broader suite of tools to ensure that water resource Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 63 management is appropriately integrated into development planning and land use management. • Plant Species Plans must be compiled by the relevant specialist within the field. • Constructed wetlands must be considered and their status must not be affected by the rehabilitation activities undertaken. The passive treatment methods should include nature- based solutions i.e., constructed wetlands. General: • Rehabilitation of Rivers should consider maintaining Category A or B rivers/watercourses management units in almost pristine conditions and serve as Reference Conditions based on the available resources and budget. • Compliance, monitoring and enforcement must be strengthened in terms of human resources and capacity for all rehabilitation work to be undertaken. • Remote Sensing and GIS must be considered and employed instead of only relying on fixed- point photographs for monitoring aspects of rehabilitation work completed. • Priority must be given to protected areas like national parks and nature reserves, however, rehabilitation should not only be limited to protected areas but should extend beyond those borders as well so that the river can provide goods and services throughout the river stretch. • Gathering of data and information from the databases (i.e., Green drop) within the DWS must be considered before exploring options for the monitoring and collecting data from new proposed sites. These datasets can be made available by the DWS to users upon request. • Gathering of historical data and information from the databases to assess causes related to changes, which led to the required rehabilitation efforts. • Collaboration between the DWS, other government departments and private institutions is recommended to find the best way possible to assist each other in implementing rehabilitation. • Capacity building and funding must be linked to existing policy statements regarding departmental funding or charges. • Consideration must be given to translating the guidelines to be developed into Policy. • Although the aspects are dealt with separately in guidelines, one should keep in mind that the aspects are interrelated and, therefore a systems approach should be followed. All these aspects should be taken into account during a rehabilitation project and cannot be considered in isolation. Therefore, monitoring data providing baselines is important. • Although the objectives define the endpoint of rehabilitation projects, an essential aspect of this is to ensure that ecosystem services are provided/or returned to a river system. The ecosystem services are a product of the interactions between the drivers and response variables. • While it may be impossible to fully restore a river system to its original condition, efforts should focus on preserving its ecosystem functioning. This perspective should be framed within the evolving understanding of what constitutes a naturally functioning river (WRC, 2016a). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 64 REFERENCE LIST Belletti, B., Rinaldi, M., Bussettini, M., Comiti, F., Gurnell, A.M., Mao, L., Nardi, L. and Vezza, P. 2017. Characterizing physical habitats and fluvial hydromorphology: A new system for the survey and classification of river geomorphic units. Geomorphology, 283: 143–157. Bruce D.W and Leagjeld E. E. 2014. Culvert Repair Best Practices, Specifications and Special Provisions – Best Practices Guidelines. CNA Consulting Engineers, 2800 University Avenue Southeast Minneapolis, MN 55414 Charalampous N., Kindou A., Vlastos D., Tsarpali V., Antonopoulou M., Konstantinou, I. and Dailianis S. 2015. A multidisciplinary assessment of river surface water quality in areas heavily influenced by human activities. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 69: 208–222. Charlton R.O. 2008. Fundamentals of Fluvial Geomorphology. Routledge. Canada. Cordner, A., De La Rosa, V.Y., Schaider, L.A., Rudel, R.A., Richter, L. & Brown, P. 2019. Guideline levels of PFOA and PFOS in drinking water: the role of scientific uncertainty, risk assessment decisions, and social factors. Journal of Exposure Science& Environmental Epidemiology 29: 157-171. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-018-0099-9. Cserbik, D., Redondo-Hasselerharm, P.E., Farré, M.E., Sanchis, J., Bartolomé, A., Paraian, A. et al., 2023. Human exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and other emerging contaminants in drinking water. Npj Clean Water 6:16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-023-00236-y. Cullis J.D.S., Gorgens A.H.M. and Marais C. 2007. A strategic study of the impact of invasive alien plants in the high rainfall catchments and riparian zones of South Africa on total surface water yield. Water SA Vol. 33 No. 1 January 2007. ISSN 03378-4738, ISSN 1816-7950. Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development. 2023. Regulations relating to Agricultural Remedy in terms of Section 23 of the Fertilizer, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act No. 36 of 1947) (GN 3812, 25 August 2023) Department of Employment and Labour. 2021. Regulations for Hazardous Chemical Agents in terms of Section 43 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act No. 85 of 1993). (GN 280, 29 March, 2021). Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment (DFFE). 2015. Guidelines for Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plans as required by Section 76 of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act no. 10 of 2004) (NEM: BA) for species listed as invasive in terms of Section 70 of this Act. (DFFE). 2020. The Alien and Invasive Species regulations in terms of section 97(1) of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No. 10 of 2004). (GG no. R 1020, 20 September 2020). DFFE. 2021. Environmental Programmes Pesticide Policy for the Control of Alien and Invasive Species. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF).1999. Stream Flow Reduction Activities Combined licensing and authorisation guidelines. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (1999). Resource Directed Measures for Protection of Water Resources. Volume 2: Integrated Manual, Version 1.0. Pretoria, South Africa. Duan, J. and Abduwali, D. 2021. Basic theory and methods of afforestation. Chapter in Book: Silviculture. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96164. Energy Alternatives India (EAI). 2024. Faecal Sludge. https://www.eai.in/ref/ae/wte/typ/clas/fecal_sludge.html (Accessed 13 August 2024) Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 65 Giano, S. (2021). Fluvial Geomorphology and River Management. Journal of Water. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13111608 Freeman, N.M and Rowntree, K. 2005. Our Changing Rivers: An Introduction to the Science and Practice of Fluvial Geomorphology. WRC Report TT 238/05 Fitts, C.R. 2002. Groundwater Science. Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 0-12-257855-4 Hall, F. R. (1968). Base-flow recessions—A review. Water resources research, 4(5), 973-983. Herbig, F.J.W. and Meissner, R. 2019. Talking dirty - effluent and sewage irreverence in South Africa: A conservation crime perspective. Cogent Social Sciences. 5:1 Hubbert, M. K. (1940). The theory of groundwater motion. The Journal of Geology, 48(8, Part 1), 785- 944. Islam, F., Lian, Q., Ahmad, Z. U., Zappi, M. E. and Gang, D. D. 2018. Nonpoint Source Pollution. Water Environment Research. 90: 1872-1898. Keller, A., Adamaitis, C., Alessi on, P., Anderson, S., Got, E., Gray, S., Gurrola, L. and Morell, K. 2020. Application in Geomorphology. Mendeley. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.04.001 Knüppe, K. 2011. The challenges facing sustainable and adaptive groundwater management in South Africa. Journal of Water SA, 37(1), 67-79. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v37i1.64110 Kaufmann, P.R., Levine, P., Robinson, E.G., Seeliger, C. and Peck, D.V. 1999. Quantifying Physical Habitat in Wadeable Streams. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. EPA/620/R-99/003. Levin, R., Villanueva, C.M., Beene, D., Cradock, A.L., Donat-Vargas, C. Lewis, J. et al., 2023. US drinking water quality: exposure risk profiles for seven legacy and emerging contaminants. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology. https://doi.org/10/1038/s41370-023- 00597-z. Lintern, A. et. al. 2017. Key factors influencing difference in stream water quality across space. WIREs Water. 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1260 Meitzen, K.M., Doyle, M.W., Thoms, M.C., and Burns, C.E. 2013. Geomorphology within the interdisciplinary science of environmental flows. Geomorphology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.03.013 Olujimi, O.O., Fatoki, O.S. Odendaal, J.P. & Daso, A.P. 2011. Chemical monitoring and temporal variation in levels of endocrine disrupting chemicals (priority phenols and phthalate esters) from selected wastewater treatment plant and freshwater systems in the Republic of South Africa. Microchemical Journal 101, 11-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2011.09.011. Pesticide Properties Database (PPDB). 2023. The Pesticide Properties Database. University of Hertfordshire. https://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/atoz.htm Reese, M., 2020. A look at acid rain and the farm phosphorus conundrum with water quality. Ohio State University (College of Food, Agriculture and Environmental Science) Country Journal. Rolls, R.J. and Bond, N.K. 2017. Chapter 4 – Environmental Flows and Ecological Effects of Flow Alteration in Surface Water Ecosystems. Water for the Environment. Pg. 65-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803907-6.00004-8 South African National Roads Agency SOC Limited (SANRAL). 2021. The Upgrading of National Route 1 Section 17 Between Westleigh (KM 77.8) and Heuningspruit (KM 101.6). Final Basic Assessment Report. DFFE Reference-14-12-16-3-3-1-2312. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 66 Sibanda, M., Buthelezi, S., Ndlovu, H.S., Mothapo, M.C. and Mutanga, O. 2021. Mapping the Eucalyptus spp. woodlots in communal areas of Southern Africa using Sentinel-2 Multi- Spectral data for hydrological applications. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2014. South Africa’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2018. The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries South African National Roads Agency SOC Limited (SANRAL). 2021. The Upgrading of National Route 1 Section 17 Between Westleigh (KM 77.8) and Heuningspruit (KM 101.6). Final Basic Assessment Report. DFFE Reference-14-12-16-3-3-1-2312 Sophocleous, M. (2002). Interactions between groundwater and surface water: the state of the science. Hydrogeology journal, 10(1), 52-67. Tóth, J. (1970). A conceptual model of the groundwater regime and the hydrogeologic environment. Journal of Hydrology, 10(2), 164-176. Volk, M., Bosch, D., Narasimhan, B. and Nangia, V. 2016. SWAT: Agricultural water and nonpoint source pollution management at a watershed scale. Agricultural Water Management. 175: 1- 3. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 2020. https://www.epa.gov/biosolids/basic-information-about-biosolids (Accessed on 16 April 2024) Water Research Commission (WRC). 2003b. River Rehabilitation: Literature Review, Case Studies and Emerging Principles. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Project No.: 1161/1/03). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2004. Surface Water – Groundwater Interaction in a Southern African Context – A Geohydrological Perspective. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Project No.: TT 218/03). Water Research Commission. 2004. A River Rehabilitation Planning Pilot Trial: The Ihlanza River, East London, South Africa. Based on the Australian River Rehabilitation Guidelines Water Research Commission. 2006. Reservoirs and their Management: A review of the literature since 1990. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No.: KV173/06). Water Research Commission. 2007. Guidelines for the planning, design, and operation of fishways in South Africa. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No TT 287/07). Water Research Commission. 2007. Twin - Channel Vertical – Slot Fishway Designs and Tests. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No: KV197/07). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2011. Water Resources of South Africa Study: User’s Guide Version 2. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No. TT 513/11). Water Research Commission (WRC). WRC. 2011. Atlas of Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas in South Africa: Maps to support sustainable development of water resources (WRC Report No. TT 500/11) Water Research Commission (WRC). 2014. Vadose Zone Hydrology: Concepts and Techniques. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No. TT 584/13). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2016a. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No. TT 646/15). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 67 Wee, S.Y. & Aris, A.Z. 2023. Revisiting the ‘forever chemicals’, PFOA and PFOS exposure in drinking water. npj Clean Water 6 (57). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-023-00274-6. Wetzel, R.G. 2001. Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems. 3 rd Ed. Pg. 39 Winter, T.C., Harvey, J.W., Franke, O.L. & Alley, W.M. 1998. Ground water and surface water: a single resource (Vol. 1139). Diane Publishing. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 68 APPENDICES Land disposal on ponds or dams Land disposal on irrigation areas Disposal to surface water Discharge to lagoon or estuary Discharge to sea There are two types of sea discharge: surf zone & deep- sea outfalls Disposal to groundwater waste quantity (daily or monthly volumes) and number of days discharged. This discharge could have an impact similar to surface or sea discharge. Therefore, the information related to surface discharge is applicable here. quantity of waste discharged: • daily • seasonal variation waste volume waste quality analyses i.e., pH, conductivity, suspended solids (SS), COD, NH3, NO3, Ortho phosphate (as P), Faecal. Coli waste quality analyses i.e., pH, conductivity, suspended solids (SS), COD, NH3, NO3, Ortho phosphate (as P), Faecal. Coli geology under-lying the dams, depth of the water table, and slope of site • crop irrigated, drop factor and type of irrigation methods used; • irrigation/application efficiency? • monthly crop irrigation requirements; • permeability and infiltration rate of the soil profile; • slope of the irrigation area; • root depth of the soil; • underlying geology; • size of the irrigation area required; • depth of the water table for summer and winter; • quality of the groundwater (macro analyses - major anions and cations); name of minor river catchment in terms of: • area of catchment; • mean monthly run-off; and • quality of river upstream of discharge • depth of groundwater • yield of groundwater (1000 m / 1 km radius of disposal area) • quality of groundwater (macro analyses - major anions and cations) Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 69 Land disposal on ponds or dams Land disposal on irrigation areas Disposal to surface water Discharge to lagoon or estuary Discharge to sea There are two types of sea discharge: surf zone & deep- sea outfalls Disposal to groundwater • slope of the irrigation area; an • direction of groundwater flow. surrounding of the disposal site i.e., dams with regards to: • rivers; • boreholes i.e., use yield, and quality; • springs/fountains; • natural depressions; • urban areas; • dwellings; The surrounding of the disposal site with regards to: • rivers; • boreholes i.e., use yield, and quality; • springs/fountains; • natural depressions; • urban areas; and • dwellings. - - - use of groundwater in the vicinity i.e., domestic, agricultural, livestock watering, irrigation, industrial use use of groundwater in the vicinity i.e., domestic, agricultural, livestock watering, irrigation, industrial use established use of river for domestic, agricultural, industrial, recreational, and environmental use - potential use of groundwater for domestic, agricultural, livestock watering, irrigation, industrial use • are the dams been sealed with plastic liners or bentonite or other clay? • are there seepage collection drains and return pumps? • are the leakage detection and monitoring systems in place? • environmental protection methods in place such as: o stormwater cut-off trenches above the site; and o cut-off canals below the site • soil amendments are done per season to sustain soil fertility and permeability; and • establish the applicable WQ criteria; • establish the critical components; and • name of major river catchment * Collect same information as for minor catchment • quality of minor catchment before discharge into major catchment (analyses) • sea water quality criteria applicable to the discharge area; • establish the critical quality components; • calculate dilution rates required to achieve the Sea Water Quality Criteria • length of pipeline; • depth of the pipeline below the LWOST mark critical quality component Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 70 Land disposal on ponds or dams Land disposal on irrigation areas Disposal to surface water Discharge to lagoon or estuary Discharge to sea There are two types of sea discharge: surf zone & deep- sea outfalls Disposal to groundwater • Soil evaluation (analyses) • quality of major catchment river upstream of minor river (analyses) • quality of major catchment river downstream of confluence of minor river (analyses) • mean monthly run-off of major catchment upstream of minor river • the RWQO’s for the total catchment • Calculate Waste Load Allocations (WLA’s) and the effect which the discharge will have on the REQO (Receiving Environmental Quality Objectives) (Low Water Ordinary Spring Tide); • number of diffusers at the boil; • dilution at the boil; • use of the beaches 5 km on either side of the pipeline; • categorisation of the coastline 5 km on either side of the pipeline; • disposal by evaporation which occurs within a process because of excess heat, or in cooling towers or in specially designed dams where it is promoted; • municipal or private waste purification plant (other than works being evaluated); • letters of acceptance of the waste by the owner of the works (attach a copy of the agreement for the delivery and acceptance of the waste); • purification plant compliance record; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 71 Land disposal on ponds or dams Land disposal on irrigation areas Disposal to surface water Discharge to lagoon or estuary Discharge to sea There are two types of sea discharge: surf zone & deep- sea outfalls Disposal to groundwater • quality acceptance limits in operation, e.g. Drainage by-laws (attach a copy); • any critical components in the raw waste (identify); and • effect of acceptance of the raw --- Document Separator --- i i Published by The Department of Water and Sanitation Private Bag X313 Pretoria, 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: (012) 336 7500/ +27 12 336 7500 Fax: (012) 336 6731/ +27 12 336 6731 Copyright Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner without full acknowledgment of the source. This report should be cited as: Department of Water and Sanitation, 2025. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands. Report 2.2. Sources Directed Studies. Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0222. Pretoria, South Africa Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 ii DOCUMENT INDEX REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR WATER RESOURCES REPORT SERIES REPORT TITLE DWS REPORT NUMBER 1. Project Planning Reports 1.1 Project Plan RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0120 1.2 Gap Analysis Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0220 1.3 Framework Document RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDC/0121 1.4 ToR for PSC members RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0221 1.5 Inception Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0321 1.6 Situation Assessment Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0421 2. Development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines 2.1 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 2.2 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0222 2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0123 2.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater resources RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0223 2.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0323 3. Implementation Report 3.1 Guidelines into Practice RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0423 4. Project Administration Reports 4.1 Project Close-out Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0525 4.1.1 Capacity Building 4.1.2 Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 iii DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL Authors: Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane, Dr Mampolelo Photolo, Ms Mmaphefo Thwala, Mr Samkele Mnyango, Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Contributors: Sub-Technical Task Team, Technical Task Team, Project Management Committee, and Project Steering Committee Specialist Reviewers: Dr Louis-Piet Grundling and Dr Yolandi Schoeman. Project Name: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0222 Report Version: Version 5.4 Date: August 2025 _________________________________________________________________________________ Department of Water and Sanitation Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Compiled by: ..................................................... Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane (Project Manager) Approved for DWS by: .................................................... Director: Sources Directed Studies Ms Tovhowani Nyamande (Project Leader) .................................................... Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Ms Ndileka Mohapi Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DWS Project Administration Committee (PAC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager DWS Sub- Technical Task Team (Sub-TT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member DWS Technical Task Team (TTT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 v Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member DWS Project Management Committee (PMC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Chairperson Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 vi Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Naomi Fourie Scientific Manager: Compliance Monitoring - Afforestation Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination-Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In-Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 vii Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Project Steering Committee Members (PSC) DWS Representatives Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Chairperson Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Barbara Weston Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Yakeen Atwaru Director: Reserve Determination Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Lebogang Matlala Director: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Anet Muir Director: Bulk Potable Water Pricing Regulation Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination-Surface Water Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 viii Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In-Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Christa Thirion Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager: Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management: Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Melissa Lintnaar-Strauss Scientist Manager: Western Cape Regional Office Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment: Northern Cape Member Water Sector Representatives Dr Andrew Wood Principal Scientist: SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd Member Mr Lehlohonolo Phadima General Manager: Scientific Services: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Ms Thembisa Torch Assistant Director: DWS: Berg-Olifants Proto-CMA Member Dr Eddie Riddell Water Resources Manager: South African National Parks Member Mr Ntsikelelo Wiseman Dlulane Acting Chief Executive Officer: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Phil McLean Task Manager: Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Pollution and Chemicals Directorate Member Mr Stanley Tshitwamulomoni Director: Water Sources and Wetlands Conservation Member Dr Dhiraj Rama Executive Director: Association of Cementitious Material Producers (ACMP) Member Mr Kobus Fell Advisor: National Water Monitor Non-Profit Company Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Donovan Gillman President: Institute for Landscape Architecture in South Africa Member Mr Reginald Mabalane Policy Analyst: Mineral Council of South Africa Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 ix Ms Busisiwe Mahlangu Control Environmental Officer: Inkomati-Usuthu Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Sihle Ximba Acting Water Care Manager: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Bonani Madikizela Research Manager: Water Research Commission Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Hermien Oberholzer Senior Principal Engineer: Anglo American Platinum Member Ms Stephinah Mudau Head Environment: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Mr Matome Makwela Senior Policy Analyst: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Ms Jenifer Zungu Project Leader: South African National Biodiversity Institute Member Mr Douglas Macfarlane Chief Scientist: Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services Member Mr Andre Beegte Implementation Manager – Wetlands: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Debbie Muir Biodiversity Officer Control: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Kate Snaddon Senior Consultant: Freshwater Consulting Member Dr Yolandi Schoeman Postdoctoral Scientist and Ecological Engineer: University of the Free State Member Dr Chantel Petersen Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Dr Vhahangwele Masindi Research and Development Manager: Magalies Water Member Ms Kim Hodgson Scientist – Water Quality Management: Umgeni Water Member Ms Lilian Siwelane Control Environmental Officer: DWS: North West, Institutional Management Member Mr Mashudu Rafundisani Senior Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Mpho Zwane Senior Specialist - Water Quality Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Esmeralda Ramburran Deputy Director - Operational Support and Planning: Department of Forestry Fisheries and the Environment Member Mr Norman Nokeri Manager - Strategy and Planning: Lepelle Northern Water Member Mr Pule Makena Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Member Mr Reveck Hariram Senior Water Quality Advisor: Rand Water Member Mr Theolin Naidoo Senior Scientist: Institute of Natural Resources NPC Member Mr Wiseman Ndlala Senior Specialist - Water Quality and Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Member Mr Roger Bills Senior Curator: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) Member Mr Fazel Sheriff Chief Engineer: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Mr Themba Dladla Provincial Programme Manager: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Dr Kobus Du Plessis Managing Director: Envirokonsult Scientific Services (Pty) Ltd Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 x Ms Mulalo Sundani Environmental Impact Management: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) Member Dr Elizabeth Day Director: Liz Day Consulting (Pty) Ltd Member Dr Heidi van Deventer Principal Researcher: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Member Mr Lubabalo Luyaba Specialist – Water and Sanitation: South African Local Government Association Member Mr Vhangani Silima Coordinator Environmental Rehabilitation: Rand Water Member Ms Phumelele Sokhulu Environmental Officer: Umgeni Member Mr Robert Siebritz Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Mr Eddy Tshabalala Control Environmental Officer: Sedibeng District Municipality Member Mr Rodney February MEL Coordinator: World Wide Fund for Nature Member Mr Ruwen Pillay Control Environmental Officer: Estuaries Management: DFFE Member Ms Yolokazi Galada Control Environmental Officer: DFFE Member Mr Stephen Midzi Manager: Biodiversity Conservation SANParks Member Dr Thakane Ntholi Manager: Water and Environment: Council for Geoscience Member Specialist Reviewers Dr Piet-Louis Grundling Environmental Control Officer: DFFE Dr Yolandi Schoeman Lecturer - University of the Free State Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AEWA AMD BAR CARA CBD CD: WEM CMA DALRRD DCOGTA DEA DEA&DP DEDTEA DFFE DMA DWAF EA ECA EIS EMP EWR DWS EIA GA GIS HIA IDZ IWQM IWRM M & E The African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement Acid Mine Drainage Basic Assessment Report Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act Convention on Biodiversity Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Catchment Management Agency Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment Disaster Management Act Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Environmental Authorization Environment Conservation Act Ecological Importance and Sensitivity Environmental Management Plan/Programme Ecological Water Requirements Department of Water and Sanitation Environmental impact Assessment General Authorization Geographic Information System Heritage Impact Assessment Industrial Development Zone Integrated Water Quality Management Integrated Water Resource Management Monitoring and Evaluation MPRDA NDP Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act National Development Plan NEMA NEM: BA NEM: WA NEM: PAA NFEPA National Environmental Management Act National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act National Environmental Management: Waste Act National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas NHRA NVFFA National Heritage Resources Act National Veld and Forest Fires Act NWA National Water Act NWRS National Water Resource Strategy NW&SMP PES RAM REC RQOs National Water and Sanitation Master Plan Present Ecological State Risk Assessment Matrix Recommended Ecological Category Resource Quality Objectives RDM SA SAHRA SANBI SWSAs SFR Resource Directed Measures South Africa South Africa Heritage Resources Agency South African National Biodiversity Institute Strategic Water Sources Areas Stream flow reduction SDCs Sources Directed Controls Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xii SDS SPLUMA UNCCD UNFCCC WDCS WML WfWet WULA WUL WRC Sources Directed Studies Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Waste Discharge Charge System Waste Management License Working for Wetlands Water Use License Application Water Use License Water Research Commission WWTWs Wastewater Treatment Works Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xiii GLOSSARY OF TERMS In terms of the definition contained within the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), a watercourse means: • A river or spring; • A natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; • A wetland, dam, or lake into which, or from which, water flows; and • Any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse; and • A reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks. Catchment in relation to a watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, is defined as the geographical area from which any rainfall will drain into the watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, through surface flow to a common point or common points. This land area from which a river or reservoir is fed is also known as a drainage region, basin, or watershed. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plants and some microorganisms (e.g., cyanobacteria) that play an important role in the conversion of solar energy to chemical energy through a process known as photosynthesis. All oxygenic photosynthetic organisms use chlorophyll-α, which contributes to the green colour of most plants and algae, but differ in accessory pigments like chlorophyll-β. Note: There are two types of chlorophyll: • Suspended chlorophyll which is related to algal cells in the water column; and • Benthic chlorophyll with is related to the literal zone of the dam (e.g. filamentous algae). Diffuse pollution - (or “non-point source pollution”) Pollution that originates from wash- off over a relatively large area. Diffuse pollution sources can be divided into source activities related to either land or water use, including failing septic tanks, agricultural and improper animal-keeping practices, and urban and rural runoff. Ecological Water Releases pertaining to specific low and high flows for maintaining ecological conditions within a specific ecological category, in the form of assurance rules for each selected EWR site. Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) is the flow patterns (magnitude, timing, and duration) and water quality needed to maintain a riverine ecosystem in a particular condition. This term is used to refer to both the quantity and quality components. Effluent is the municipal sewage or industrial wastewater (untreated, partially treated, or fully treated) that flows out of a wastewater treatment works, septic system, pipe, etc. Eutrophic is a state of an aquatic ecosystem rich in minerals and nutrients, very productive in terms of aquatic plant life and exhibiting increasing signs of water quality problems. Eutrophication - (from the Greek “eutrophos” meaning "well-nourished") Is the process of over-enrichment of waterbodies with minerals and nutrients, which (at the right temperatures, substrate availability, flow velocity and light penetration) increasingly induce primary production, e.g., algal and macrophyte growth. Eutrophication can be regarded as either a natural aging process in waterbodies or an aging process that can be accelerated by anthropogenic activities. Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets (i.e., GBF Goal A target 2 for restoration of ecosystems). Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xiv Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. IWRM takes into account the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. Mean annual runoff is the average volume of water that flows in a river per year (annum), expressed as cubic meters per annum. Monitoring - periodic or continuous surveillance or testing to determine the level of compliance with statutory requirements and/or pollutant levels in various media or in humans, plants, and animals. Non-point source pollution - See “Diffuse pollution.” National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPAs) form part of a comprehensive approach to sustainable and equitable development of South Africa’s scarce water resources. For integrated water resources planning, NFEPA provides guidance on how many rivers, wetlands and estuaries, and which ones, should remain in a natural or near-natural condition to support the water resource protection goals of the National Water Act. Point source pollution - pollutant loads discharged at a specific location by means of pipes, outfalls, or conveyance channels inter alia delivering wastewater from municipal and industrial Wastewater Treatment Works. Point sources can also include pollutant loads contributed by tributary. Resources Directed Measures (RDM) focus on the quality of the water resource itself, regarding it as an ecosystem rather than a commodity. RDMs comprise Classes, Reserve and RQOs as components. Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) are a numerical or descriptive (narrative) statement of the conditions which should be met in the receiving water resource, in terms of resource quality, in order to ensure that the water resource is protected. They might describe, amongst others, the quantity, pattern, and timing of instream flow; water quality; the character and condition of riparian habitat, and the characteristics and condition of the aquatic biota. Resource Water Quality Objective (RWQOs) are the water quality component of the Resource Quality Objective. Are numeric and/or descriptive objectives, which address the physical, chemical and/or microbiological properties of waterbodies that should be met in receiving water resources to ensure that the water quality requirements of the recognised water users and the aquatic ecosystem are sufficiently protected. Resource Water Quality Objectives are not gazetted, per se. River Eco-status Monitoring Programme (REMP) is a programme for monitoring the ecological conditions of the river ecosystems based on the drivers and responses in the river. REMP is aimed to establish the reference condition (usually a natural or close to natural condition) of the river or reach that will used to assess the temporal conditions of that river or reach with the consideration of both the biotic (instream and riparian biota) and abiotic (hydrology, geomorphology, and physico- chemical conditions) factors of that river. Runoff is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. Surface runoff replenishes groundwater and surface water resources as it percolates through soil profiles or moves into streams and rivers. Social-Ecological System (SES) are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xv Source: In water resource management, “source” refers to the source of an impact, usually on a water resource. The relationship between “Source” and “Resource” is similar to the relationships between “Cause” and “Effect” or “Aspect” and “Impact,” as per the ISO 14001 definitions. The “Resource” or the “water resource” is part of the receiving environment. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) are formally defined as natural source areas for water that supply disproportionately large volumes of water per unit area and that are considered of strategic significance for water security from a national planning perspective. Water from SWSAs feeds major dams and can be considered ecological infrastructure that works hand in hand with built infrastructure for delivering water. Trophic status refers to the degree of nutrient enrichment of surface water resources and the associated amount of primary productivity that can be sustained. Wastewater is any water used from domestic, industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, which may contain physical, chemical, and biological pollutants. Water quality - the biological, chemical, and physical conditions of a waterbody. It is a measure of a waterbody's ability to support beneficial water use. Weirs, also known as low-head dams, are small overflow-type dams commonly used to raise the level of a river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir, although some weirs have sluice gates, which release water at a level below the top of the weir. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS DOCUMENT INDEX ........................................................................................................................................... II DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL ...........................................................................................................................III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... XI GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................................................... XIII TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................... XVI LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... XVIII LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................... XVIII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. XIX 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 WETLAND DEFINITION, CATEGORIES, AND IMPACTS ........................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Definition of Wetlands .................................................................................................................................. 2 1.2.2 Wetland Characteristics and Indicators ........................................................................................................ 2 1.2.3 Wetland Types and Categories ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.4 Wetland Ecosystem Services ........................................................................................................................ 5 1.2.5 Wetland Impacts ........................................................................................................................................... 6 1.3 REHABILITATION DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS ...................................................................................... 7 1.4 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT .............................................. 10 GUIDELINES FOR WETLANDS ............................................................................................................................ 10 1.5 DEFINITION OF WATERCOURSES ......................................................................................................... 10 1.6 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES .................................... 11 1.6.1 Guiding Principles ........................................................................................................................................ 11 1.6.2 Approach ..................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.7 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES ................................................................................................ 13 1.8 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES ......................................................................................................... 14 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................................. 14 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................... 14 2.2 OTHER RELEVANT LEGISLATIVE TOOLS ........................................................................................................... 19 2.3 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PRINCIPLES ..................................................................... 20 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ................................................................................................. 22 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ................................................................ 22 3.2 LINK BETWEEN WATER RESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ............................. 23 4. GUIDELINES FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ...................................................................... 24 4.1 HYDROLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 24 4.1.1 Components of the Hydrological Cycle........................................................................................................ 24 4.1.2 Definitions of the components of the Hydrological Cycle ............................................................................ 24 4.1.3 Wetland Hydrology Impacts ........................................................................................................................ 25 4.1.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Hydrology ................................................................................ 25 4.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 34 4.2.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 34 4.2.2 Factors Influencing Geomorphological Impacts .......................................................................................... 35 4.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology ..................................................................... 36 4.3 WATER QUALITY .................................................................................................................................. 38 4.3.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 38 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xvii 4.3.2 Types of Water Quality Impacts .................................................................................................................. 38 4.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality .......................................................................... 39 4.4 HABITAT .............................................................................................................................................. 45 4.4.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 45 4.4.2 Types of Habitat Impact .............................................................................................................................. 45 4.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat .................................................................................... 45 4.5 BIOTA .................................................................................................................................................. 47 4.5.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 47 4.5.2 Types of Biota Impacts ................................................................................................................................ 48 4.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota ........................................................................................ 48 5. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD.............................................................................................. 52 REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 54 APPENDICES................................................................................................................................................... 58 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xviii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Five main terrain unit indicators for wetlands landscape ..................................................... 2 Figure 2: Examples of soil forms as indicators of wetland presence .................................................... 3 Figure 3: The seven primary HGM types for inland aquatic ecosystems and their typical landscape settings ................................................................................................................................................... 5 Figure 4: Rehabilitation as part of the mitigation hierarchy for dealing with negative impacts on biodiversity ............................................................................................................................................. 8 Figure 5: Rehabilitation Principles ....................................................................................................... 12 Figure 6: The Ecological Water Requirements of the Reserve including drivers and responses ....... 23 Figure 7: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. .............................................................................................................................................................. 24 Figure 8: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for erosion (headcuts) impacts in a Hillslope seep. .............................................................................................................................................................. 28 Figure 9: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for straightened channel erosion. ..................... 28 Figure 10: Example of rehabilitation intervention for channelled flow impacts. ............................. 29 Figure 11: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for structures impeding flow. .......................... 29 Figure 12: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for peatland. .................................................... 30 Figure 13: Planning and Assessment Phase steps for alien vegetation control and clearing ............ 32 Figure 14: Alien vegetation clearing and control methods. ................................................................ 33 Figure 15: Relationship between wetland processes, geomorphology, climate change and human activities ................................................................................................................................................ 35 Figure 16: Interventions for addressing vegetation loss impacts ....................................................... 37 Figure 17: Passive Treatment Methods. .............................................................................................. 40 Figure 18: Active Treatment Method .................................................................................................. 41 Figure 19: Weir structures components available for wetland rehabilitation. ................................. 50 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Landscape settings and flow characteristics of the HGM wetland types ............................... 4 Table 2: Ecosystem services included in, and assessed by, WET-EcoServices ..................................... 6 Table 3: Approach to be followed for development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Wetlands including the associated characteristics of watercourses. ................................................................. 13 Table 4: Legislative Framework Applicable for Wetlands Rehabilitation .......................................... 14 Table 5: Types of factors affecting wetland habitat ........................................................................... 45 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY There has been an increase in wetland rehabilitation interest and research efforts over the last two decades in South Africa. In 2020, the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) Directorate: Sources Directed Studies (SDS) initiated an in-house project for the development of the Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMG) for Water Resources in South Africa. The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystem Management to conduct sources directed studies. The project aims to address the fragmentation across different projects, programmes, and initiatives due to separate mandates and various institutions responsible for wetlands rehabilitation; especially with regard to characteristics of watercourses. It is for this reason that the DWS is developing Wetland RMG to address characteristics of watercourses, namely surface flow, groundwater flows, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota through following a phased approach, namely; diagnostic, planning and assessment, setting of the rehabilitation objectives, execution, and monitoring phases. The following are key aspects covered to address the shortcomings of each characteristic of a watercourse: • Description of the specific characteristics of watercourse; • Types of impacts for each characteristic of a watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that gives rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal Considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of a watercourse; and • Step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. The current Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) for wetlands have been structured per characteristics of watercourses, namely hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota. Various activities impact on these characteristics of watercourses in various ways within wetlands. Erosion, infestation of alien invasive vegetation, over abstraction and road construction are the main impacts on the hydrology of wetlands. Grazing and trampling within the catchment of a wetland modifies the runoff characteristics of the catchment and create preferential flows within the wetland. Alteration of surface runoff result in straightened channel erosion and formation of gullies within the wetland due to higher-than-normal water velocity. In addition, conversions of land for agricultural, industrial or residential use cause wetland drainage, which results in wetlands that are less effective at regulating stream flow and purifying water, because the drainage channels speed up the movement of water through the wetland and exacerbate erosion by concentrating water flow (Collins, 2005). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for hydrology – surface flow and runoff have been developed with a focus on rehabilitation of altered and incised wetland channels due to erosion (gully and headcut) formation and alien vegetation. Grazing in riparian areas within wetlands is a natural phenomenon, however, excessive grazing causes alteration of the natural vegetation cover, reduces vegetation and habitat complexity. These changes reduce the flood attenuation and sediment trapping efficiencies of wetlands. Other indirect effects of grazing include trampling within wetlands, and the creation of localised erosion gullies, while severely Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 xx trampled riparian areas may be more vulnerable to erosion. The current RMGs have been developed for geomorphology with a focus on improving wetland vegetation growth and sediment trapping. Water quality within wetlands is affected by both point sources of pollution and non-point sources of pollution. Point sources of pollution emanate mainly from industries, Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs) and other sources within the catchment. Inadequately treated effluent from WWTWs poses a risk to wetlands. Non-point sources of pollution are caused by activities such as mining, urban developments, and agricultural return flows. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is one of the most serious and potentially enduring environmental problems for the mining industry. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed to address the discharge of raw and inadequately treated wastewater into watercourses. In terms of habitat, human activities such as road construction, stream crossings as well as embankments degrade and destroy wetland habitat by altering water quality, quantity, and flow rates. These actions contribute to increased pollutants and disrupt species composition through the introduction of alien species. Habitat impacts include poor landscape planning/design practices, lack of development of scientific buffers, unprotected riparian habitat, overgrazing, and illegal harvesting for wood to make ornaments/furniture and subsistence farming. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed to rehabilitate wetlands. In terms of biota, human‐induced disturbance, such as the construction of barriers such as dam walls and weirs within or in close proximity of wetlands alters the hydraulics and geomorphic characteristics of the wetland. These barriers also alter the wetland aquatic zone which cause changes in the physical habitats upon which biota depend. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed for biota with specific reference to: • Restoration of disturbed wetland conditions; • Restoration of natural hydrological and sediment conditions; and • Prevention of erosion headcuts and limitation of incisions within the wetland. . Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND Wetlands in South Africa (SA) play an important role in sustaining the country’s ecology and economy through the indispensable ecosystem services they provide. These ecosystem services range from supporting a wide variety of specialised plant, insect, bird, and mammal life; to supplying wild food, grazing, building and craft materials to people; and absorbing flood waters, improving water quality and regulating streamflow, helping to maintain ecosystem functioning downstream. Different wetland types supply different ecosystem services (WRC, 2007; 2021). However, wetlands have been severely affected by the anthropogenic activities that have drastically altered landscapes over the past few centuries (Dini and Bahadur, 2016; SANBI, 2019). It has been reported that more than 50% of wetlands have been lost in South Africa, and of those that remain, 33% are in poor ecological condition due to poor management (Nel and Driver, 2015). Furthermore, the latest National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) Report (SANBI, 2019) also states that wetlands form part of the most threatened and least protected ecosystems in South Africa. To integrate rehabilitation efforts on South African wetland systems, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) within the DWS initiated a project for the development of RMGs (i.e., wetlands). The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM) which is to conduct sources directed studies to ensure water resource protection. In the Situation Assessment Phase of the project, it was established that a great deal of research has been conducted in South Africa to understand the discipline of wetland rehabilitation to provide locally and site-specific rehabilitation interventions. The impacts on wetlands were also clearly identified and contextualized for each of the studies reviewed. Below is a list of the main findings from the review conducted: • The WRC Wetland Management Guidelines Series was developed in SA for effective wetland management and rehabilitation. Following various experiences gained in the application of wetland management and rehabilitation tools during the last ten years, the WET-Rehab Evaluate, WET-Health and WET-Eco Services were updated in 2019, 2020 and 2021 respectively. These guidelines provide technical methods for undertaking rehabilitation activities, the overarching legislative framework to consider for planning, designing, implementation and monitoring phases of rehabilitation interventions. In addition, the Buffer Zone Guidelines for Rivers, Wetlands and Estuaries (WRC, 2017) were developed for setting appropriate ecological buffers. • There are also programmes and initiatives that are currently in place to ensure natural wetland rehabilitation improvement and management. A range of management options have been implemented to address the various impacts identified. The Situation Assessment Phase concluded that the existing manuals and best practice guidelines suffice in protection and management of wetlands, with the below main gaps identified. • Efforts across different Departments, projects, programmes, and initiatives are fragmented due to separate mandates and various institutions conducting rehabilitation work. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 2 • Many wetland rehabilitation programmes do not address all characteristics of watercourses, as defined in the National Water Act, namely surface flow/surface runoff, groundwater flows, water quality, geomorphology, habitat, and biota. • Most wetland studies/ programmes do not address the roles of constructed wetlands in the landscape. Note: The second edition of the Wetland Fix: Introduction and Wetland Assessment compiled by Wyatt (1997) is one of the tools that were developed with the aim to conserve wetlands. 1.2 WETLAND DEFINITION, CATEGORIES, AND IMPACTS 1.2.1 Definition of Wetlands The National Water Act (NWA) (Act 36 of. 1998), defined a wetland as “land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface, or the land is periodically covered with shallow water, and which land in normal circumstances supports or would support vegetation typically adapted to life in saturated soil”. 1.2.2 Wetland Characteristics and Indicators There are several indicators and different site criteria that can be employed to identify wetland areas. The below four indicators have been developed to assist with the identification of wetlands (DWAF, 2008). • Terrain Unit Indicator – assists with identification of those parts of the landscape where wetlands are more likely to occur. Figure 1 below illustrates the main terrain units. Figure 1: Five main terrain unit indicators for wetlands landscape Source: WRC, 2019 • Soil Form Indicator – aids to identify the type of soil form according to standard soil category system since wetlands are associated with certain soil types. Examples of soil form that are associated with wetlands are depicted in Figure 2. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 3 Figure 2: Examples of soil forms as indicators of wetland presence Source: WRC, 2019 • Vegetation Indicator – helps with identification of vegetation associated with ephemeral, seasonally and permanently saturated soils. • Soil Wetness Indicator – assists with identification of morphological signatures in soil profiles due to prolonged periods of saturation (i.e., anaerobic conditions). 1.2.3 Wetland Types and Categories Different types of wetland areas exist in South Africa as a result of various environmental factors and topography. Cowan and Van Riet (1998) divided wetlands around the country into different regions according to climate and the geomorphology of the country. These are further sub-divided into four groups, i.e., mountains, plateau, coastal plain, coastal slopes and rimland. Endorheic pans, lacustrine, riverine, estuarine, palustrine, marine, and man-made/constructed wetlands are some of the most common wetlands found in South Africa. Brinson (1993), Kotze (1999) and Marneweck and Batchelor (2002) developed a system to characterise wetland systems based on the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) characteristics (landscape settings and flow) - the way in which water moves in, through and out of them. This system follows that used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) and has in the past been included as part of a proposed wetland category system for South African wetlands by Ewart-Smith et al., (2006). Table 1 below presents the different types of wetlands which are grouped according to landscape settings and hydrological functions. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 4 Table 1: Landscape settings and flow characteristics of the HGM wetland types Sources: adapted from Brinson, 1993; Kotze, 1999; Rountree and Batchelor, 2008 Wetland Type Description Flow Pattern Landscape setting Rivers - Channelled Valley bottoms Strongly confined valley floor Lakes - Standing water Wide or unconfined valley floor Unchannelled valley bottoms • Valley bottom surfaces which do not have a channel; • These systems tend to be found in the upper catchment areas, or at tributary junctions where the sediment from the tributary smothers the main drainage line diffuse Channelled valley bottoms • Valley bottom surfaces which have a straight channel with flow on a permanent or seasonal basis; • These systems tend to be found in the upper catchment areas. Channelled (parallel to valley) Meandering floodplain • Valley bottom surfaces which have a meandering channel which develop upstream of a local (e.g. resistant dyke) base level, or close to the mouth of the river (upstream of the ultimate base level, the sea). Channelled (meandering across valley) Seepage wetlands • Located on the mid- and foot slopes of hillsides; either as isolated systems or connected to downslope valley bottom wetlands. Diffuse - diffuse Slopes Diffuse – surface/channel Depressional Pans • Pans are found in many arid zones around the world and consist of brackish, saline or alkaline lakes, flats, pans and marshes; • Endorheic pans are distinguished by shapes ranging from circular to oval and have no drainage outlet; • Pans are most frequently found in the Western, Southern and Eastern Plateau wetland regions of South Africa; • Circular or oval in shape; usually found on the crest positions in the landscape. Diffuse flow – standing water Crests Flats - No defined direction of drainage due to very flat landscaping Flats Peatlands are defined as wetlands with more than 30% organic matter, roughly equal to 20% organic carbon or more, in a peat layer of more than 30cm thick, whilst a mire is a peatland where peat is currently being formed by peat forming vegetation (Joosten and Clark 2002; Joosten et al., 2012). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 5 Peatlands are maintained by hydrological processes and their position in the landscape determines their characteristics and response to change (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Most peatlands occur in temperate climates where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, although a significant proportion does occur in subtropical climates with a water deficit (WRC, 2008). Thereafter, Ollis et al., (2013; 2016) publications were developed and used in the National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) 2011 and 2018 for wetland ecosystem types; whereby seven primary HGM types (River, channelled valley-bottom wetland, unchanneled valley-bottom wetland, floodplain, depression, seep, wetland flat) are identified as the focal point of the SANBI classification system for inland aquatic ecosystems as depicted in Figure 3 below. These primary HGM types were derived from the HGM types recognized in the WET-Health tool for assessing the present ecological condition and WET-EcoServices tool for assessing the ecosystem services of palustrine inland wetlands in South Africa. Figure 3: The seven primary HGM types for inland aquatic ecosystems and their typical landscape settings Source: Ollis et al., 2013 1.2.4 Wetland Ecosystem Services Wetlands are regarded as significant because of the beneficial services they provide. Table 2 below provides wetland services which have been detailed in the WET-EcoServices report compiled by WRC (2008; 2021) and they are considered most important for South African wetlands as described, which is by no means exhaustive. A rapid assessment technique referred to as the WET-EcoServices is a tool that was developed to monitor the importance of ecosystem services provided by different wetland ecosystem types and riparian areas in the country. The tool also informs decision making in relation to the prioritisation of wetlands for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 6 Table 2: Ecosystem services included in, and assessed by, WET-EcoServices Source: WRC, 2008 Other benefits include flood attenuation, stream flow regulation; water purification, provision of goods and services (i.e., food, medicine and building materials); biodiversity maintenance; recreational opportunities; and groundwater recharge and discharge; which may all be important but are difficult to characterise at a rapid assessment level. 1.2.5 Wetland Impacts In 2014, approximately 300 000 wetlands were reported to make up 2.4% of South Africa’s surface area, excluding many wetlands that had already been irreversibly lost to a range of other land use activities (SANBI, 2014 and Driver et al., 2012). Of the nearly 800 wetland ecosystem types, 65% were threatened (likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future). Of this 65% wetland types, 48% were critically endangered (CR) (critical endangered throughout all or a significant portion), 12% were endangered (EN) and 5% vulnerable (VU) (considered to be facing a high risk) (SANBI, 2014). The latest mapping data in the recent NBA (SANBI, 2019) indicates that inland wetlands cover 2.2% of South Africa’s surface area; whereby the status persists, with an indication that “inland wetlands are highly threatened, with almost 80% of South Africa’s 135 inland wetland ecosystem types categorised Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 7 as threatened (61% CR, 9% EN, 9% VU). When considered by extent, this amounts to almost 88% of South Africa’s estimated 2.6 million ha (26 000 km²) area for inland wetlands being threatened”. Wetland ecosystems have been mapped according to types over the years ranging from National Wetland Map (NWM) versions 1 to 6; with each NWM providing improvements and updates to the spatial extent of the various wetland ecosystems. The update of the NWM5 showed that 2.2% of the country has been mapped as inland wetlands, totalling 2.6 million ha (Van Deventer et al., 2020). The DWS monitors wetlands through the National Wetland Monitoring Programme (NWMP), the design of which was done through a WRC Project (completed in 2016). The NWMP is implemented by the DWS and seeks to assess and monitor the extent of wetlands, threats to, and the change in the present ecological state and ecosystem services provided by wetlands in the country. The Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment (DFFE) compiled Provincial Strategic Plans for 2019-2024 to address the identified impacts associated with wetlands per province. The most notable impacts in the literature include the following: • Afforestation; • Mining; • Surface and groundwater abstraction; • Agriculture; • Siltation/Sedimentation of banks; • Sewage discharge; • Alien invasive species; • Urbanization and Infrastructure development; and • Industrial Development Zones (IDZs). Afforestation alters the characteristics of the wetlands as well as the water supply that sustains the pans (Mackintosh et al., 2017). Conversely, pans located near farming are impacted upon by fertilisers and pesticides emanating from farming activities, which leads to water enriched with nutrients and eventually eutrophication. Main threats to depression wetlands include industrial developments, recreational demands, and pollution from agricultural herbicides and pesticides (Cowan and Van Riet, 1998; Adame et al., 2019). 1.3 REHABILITATION DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS Rehabilitation refers to measures taken in the process of returning an impacted area to a desired ecosystem condition or structure, function, biotic composition, and associated ecosystem services (DWAF, 2008). Rehabilitation entails undertaking certain remedial action to minimise the adverse impacts on the environment and to prevent further environmental degradation from occurring, continuing, or recurring. Rehabilitation forms part of the logical sequence of the mitigation hierarchy for dealing with negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems (DEA et al., 2013; WRC, 2016) (Figure 4). Rehabilitation requirements are most often implemented to address impacts that cannot be avoided or minimised for which there is well established guidance (Chamber of Mines, 2007), but may also be included as part of an offset requirement. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 8 Figure 4: Rehabilitation as part of the mitigation hierarchy for dealing with negative impacts on biodiversity Source: adapted from DEA et al., 2013 Stage 1 and 2: Rehabilitation does not form part of the Stage 1 and 2 of the mitigation hierarchy. These stages involve considering options in the project location, siting, scale, layout, technology, and phasing to avoid/prevent or minimise impacts on biodiversity, associated ecosystem services and people. Stage 3: Most rehabilitation requirements are linked to the rehabilitation of unavoidable impacts. Rehabilitation refers to the measures provided to return impacted areas to near-natural state or an agreed land use after mine closure. Stage 4: Rehabilitation may be included as part of an offset plan. Offsets are measures to compensate for the residual negative effects on biodiversity and ecosystems, after every effort has been made to minimise and the rehabilitate impacts. Wetland Offset Best Practices Guidelines (WRC, 2016) were developed in response to the growing need for practical guidance on wetland offsets, which are increasingly being prescribed through regulatory processes in response to ongoing loss and degradation of wetland resources. They should be applied where significant, large-scale residual wetland impacts are encountered (i.e., large-scale infrastructure and opencast mining). Moreover, the guidelines provide an equally useful framework to inform wetland offset design and implementation in other contexts where there are smaller, but still significant, residual impacts and a wetland offset is still required (i.e., agriculture or small development projects). Figure 4 (specifically Stage 4) are in support of information contained within the Wetland Offset Best Practices Guidelines that wetland offsets are applied within a mitigation hierarchy and are only aimed Stage 1: Avoid or Prevent Stage 2: Minimise Stage 3: Rehabilitate Stage 4: Offset Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 9 at compensating for significant residual impacts of project development on the environment after all appropriate and feasible steps have first been taken to avoid/prevent, minimize/reduce and remediate/rehabilitate impacts. First, a development proposal should try to avoid or prevent negative impacts on wetlands and the ecosystem services and biodiversity they support by seeking alternative types of development, or alternative locations, different scales of development, different layouts and siting of development components, etc. When all reasonable and feasible alternatives have been identified and considered, every effort should be made to minimise remaining negative impacts and to rehabilitate or remediate affected areas. The following important key considerations extracted from the Wetland Offset Best Practices Guidelines (WRC, 2016) should be considered prior to opting for wetland offset: • Wetlands offsets cannot, therefore, be applied as the only or first mitigation option; the prior sequence of mitigation steps (Stage 1 to 3 in Figure 4) must first be exhausted. The guidelines details how to calculate the residual impacts of a development in terms of Water Resources and Ecosystem Services, Ecosystem Conservation, and Species of Conservation Concern. • Wetland offsets are a final compensation or mitigation measure where an approved project has significant residual impacts after all other reasonable mitigation measures have been fully implemented. They are not an alternative to the full application of the mitigation hierarchy. • Wetland offsets are not an easy or quick way out for obtaining approval for a development in an area where wetlands are impacted. The implementation of a wetland offset requires careful identification of suitable wetland sites which need to be appropriately managed, secured and monitored for the long term, and hence costs may be high. • The addition of a wetland offset to an otherwise unacceptable impact on wetlands does not change the acceptability of the impact, and hence should not influence the decision-making process regarding the authorisation of a proposed development. The below are other considerations for users intending to undertake wetland offset (WRC, 2016): • Implement the Wetland Offset Best Practices Guidelines to achieve ‘No Net Loss’ and preferably a net gain with respect to the full spectrum of functions and values provided by wetlands; • Determining the size and characteristics of a wetland offset, and determining the requirements for its implementation; • Once a decision on the need for a wetland offset has been taken, follow the water use authorisation process (i.e., in an application for a Water Use Licence under the National Water Act) through the (DWS). Some of the key aspects of the authorisation process are reflected in Chapter 5 of the Wetland Offset Guidelines as follows: o Compilation of a Wetland Offset Report; o Development of a Wetland Offset Management Plan; o Development of a Monitoring Plan; o Submission, Review and Approval by the relevant authority i.e., the DWS; o Implementation of the offset; o Monitoring of wetland offset activities; o Verification and sign off; and o Formal sign-off of the wetland offset. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 10 • Where the said guidelines are being used in other authorisation processes, the decision on the need for a wetland offset would be determined through an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process and interactions with the relevant regulatory authorities i.e., DFFE and Department of Minerals Resources and Energy (DMRE); • The said guideline should be applied in conjunction with the electronic Wetland Offset Calculator (appended on the guidelines) to assist with calculations. Appendices include a list protection levels and ecosystem threat statuses for wetland groups required for the calculations of offsets and provides specific guidance on the use of the Wetland Offset Calculator which is also relevant for manually doing the calculations. Wetland restoration is defined as remedial activity applied to systems that have been completely and permanently, but not irreparably, altered (Grenfell et al., 2007). Most recently, SANBI (2023) defined wetland restoration as “the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been damaged, degraded or destroyed, towards an appropriate reference state”. Wetland re-creation involves creating/establishing wetlands where they did not occur previously whilst Wetland re-establishment refers to where wetlands that were removed or lost by mining are re-established within the post mining or mining rehabilitation footprint. For the purpose of developing the current guidelines, wetland rehabilitation definition is adopted from Russel (2009); SANBI (2013); and DWS (2014) which refers to process of assisting recovery of a degraded wetland in terms of the wetland condition, function, and associated biodiversity, or in maintaining the health of a wetland that is threatened by degradation, through the implementation of remedial interventions or proactive preventative measures. See Appendix A for comparison between restoration, re-creation/re- establishment, and rehabilitation of wetlands. 1.4 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR WETLANDS The primary objectives of the guidelines are to: • Develop RMGs for Wetlands in terms of their interactions with characteristics of watercourses, namely; hydrology, groundwater flows, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota; and • Integrate, align, identify existing wetland management bodies, and standardize tools 1 , processes, procedures, and rehabilitation strategies regarding wetland rehabilitation across various disciplines and institutions. 1.5 DEFINITION OF WATERCOURSES In terms of the definition contained within the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), a watercourse means: • A river or spring; 1 An example of this tool is the National Wetland Management Framework (NWMF) developed jointly between the DALRRD, DFFE and DWS with a focus on guiding wetland management at a national level. Given this emphasis at a national level, the framework seeks to provide specific direction for National Departments jointly responsible for wetland management. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 11 • A natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; • A wetland, dam, or lake into which, or from which, water flows; and • Any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse; and • A reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks. Note: The link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses is contained in the definition above as well as in Section 3.1 and 3.2 of the report. 1.6 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES The current RMGs are developed for characteristics of watercourses, namely; hydrology (surface flow and runoff), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, biota, and groundwater flows. The following are aspects are covered under each characteristic of watercourse: • Description of the specific characteristics of watercourse; • Types of impacts for each characteristic of watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that gives rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal Considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of a watercourse; and • Step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. 1.6.1 Guiding Principles According to Rountree and Batchelor (2008) guidance for rehabilitation planning can be applied in terms of rehabilitation context derived from the South African National Working for Wetlands Programme, a joint initiative of DFFE, DWS and Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD). Some important aspects of guidance are provided in Figure 5 below. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 12 Figure 5: Rehabilitation Principles Source: Adapted from Rountree and Batchelor, 2008 The need for rehabilitation arises due to degradation as reported by the National Water and Sanitation Master Plan, 2018. Although interventions may not be able to reinstate water resources to natural state, a functional state must be the aim of ecosystem recovery initiatives. King et al., (2003) recommended the following key principles for rehabilitation: • Description of the specific characteristics of watercourse; • Defining rehabilitation objectives; • The objectives for rehabilitation should be clear, and explicit; • Rehabilitation must direct the system back towards a more natural state, and work in harmony with the major abiotic drivers of the ecosystem; • Undertaking rehabilitation should be seen as an interdisciplinary activity, recognising that rehabilitation may be necessary over a range of spatial and temporal scales; • Rehabilitation should aim at treating causes rather than symptoms; • Given that ecosystems are dynamic and can naturally exist in alternative metastable states, it should be remembered that it is easier to cross a degradation threshold than to return over it; • Monitoring should be an essential component of rehabilitation. Below is a list of some key importance and applicability of the above-mentioned principles: • Ecosystem-based approach; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 13 • Re-instating natural processes; • Enhancing biodiversity and habitat diversity; • Improving water quality; • Flood mitigation and erosion control; • Stakeholder engagement and community involvement; and • Long-term sustainability. 1.6.2 Approach The Wetland Rehabilitation Guidelines are developed with the aim to guide users on step-by-step rehabilitation measures/interventions to be followed for executing rehabilitation with specific attention to and consideration in planning, design, implementation, and monitoring of the identified impacts. Table 3 below presents the approach followed for development of the wetland guidelines. Table 3: Approach to be followed for development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Wetlands including the associated characteristics of watercourses. Phase Description PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase • Description of the specific characteristics of the watercourse. • The characteristics will be diagnosed to identify the cause/source of impact; and determine the level of modification and rehabilitation measures will be recommended to reinstate the conditions of the drivers. • Determine the conditions and the type, size, extent of impacts and vegetation cover/ species on characteristics of watercourses. PHASE 2: Planning & Assessment Phase • Conduct planning and assessment to ensure the desired rehabilitation outcomes are achieved. • Assess and collate available information from maps & datasets on the affected watercourses. • Review and assess legal considerations PHASE 3: Define the Rehabilitation Objectives • Identify and define the objectives of rehabilitation to ensure the impacts on the characteristics of watercourses are addressed. PHASE 4: Execution • Recommend techniques and methods to address the impacts identified. Consider the protection of the water resources ecosystem. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation (M & E) and Reporting • Monitor the results of the techniques and methods employed for rehabilitation to determine whether objectives are being achieved and whether there are any additional interventions required. • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. • Compilation of Rehabilitations Report. 1.7 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES The RMGs for Wetlands is a set of tools developed to ensure that clear and practical steps are provided on a wide range of rehabilitation measures/interventions related to characteristics of watercourses, which take cognisance of legal, ecological, social, and economic issues and aspects. The guidelines are intended for all Government Departments (National, Provincial and Local), Catchment Management Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 14 Agencies (CMAs), sectoral institutions (i.e., higher education institutions), civil society members, non- governmental entities, private sector (agriculture, industries, mining) and all interested and affected parties involved in the water sector. The guidelines are developed at a national scale for implementation at a catchment scale/level. 1.8 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES The guidelines are divided into five main sections as follows: • The opening sections contain the document signatories, document index and status, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of figures, tables, acronyms, and executive summary. • Section 1 provides the background of the development of the guidelines, purpose, approach, intended users and structure of the guidelines. • Section 2 provides the overarching legal framework for wetland rehabilitation and alignment with key policies, strategies, and principles. • Section 3 describes the characteristics of watercourses and their linkage to water resources • Section 4 provides the overarching water resource impacts and degradation impacts associated with characteristics of watercourses and the step-by-step Technical Rehabilitation Guidelines for characteristics of watercourses. • Section 5 provides recommendations and a way forward. 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK The Constitution of South Africa is the overarching legislative tool in the country, followed by sectoral legislation on environment and natural resource management. The South African government policy on wetlands recognizes that, in order to be truly effective, strategies for wetland conservation need to include a combination of proactive measures for maintaining healthy wetlands, together with actions to reverse past degradation. This latter aspect forms the core business of the government led wetlands programme. Different institutions lead the mandate over different legislative tools applicable to wetland rehabilitation; and the processes to be followed varies across institutions. Table 4 below presents a summary of institutions, legislative tools they administrate, and processes applicable to Wetlands Rehabilitation. Table 4: Legislative Framework Applicable for Wetlands Rehabilitation Overarching Legislative Tool Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) Chapter 2, Section 24 provides that everyone has the right: • To an environment that is not harmful to people’s health or well-being, • To have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that: - prevent pollution and ecological degradation; - promote conservation; and - secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development. Chapter 2, Section 27 provides that everyone has the right: • To sufficient water. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 15 Legislative Tools per Mandated Institution Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process DWS National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) Chapter 3 provision for the Protection of Water Resources, with Part 4 and Section 19 pertaining to Pollution Prevention 19, 20, 21, 39 Water Use License Application (WULA), Waste Discharge Charge System (WDCS), General Authorization (GA) GN 509 21(c) and (i) GN509 allows water users to apply for Section 21(c) & (i) under a General Authorisation (GA), as opposed to a full WULA. These water uses may include general construction, maintenance and/or emergency work, river and stormwater management activities and undertaking wetland rehabilitation works within the regulated area of a watercourse. In order for a water use (or potential) to qualify for a GA under GN 509, the proposed water use/activity must be subject to analysis by a suitably qualified natural scientist that is professional registered with the South Africa Council for Natural Scientific Professions (SACNASP) using the DWS Risk Assessment Matrix (RAM). Note: GN509 does not exempt the water user from compliance with any other provision of the Act or from any other applicable legislation, regulation, ordinance, or by-law. GN 1198 21(c) and (i) GN1198 relieves a water user from the need to apply for a license for impeding or diverting the flow of water in a watercourse in terms of section 21(c) or altering of the bed, banks, characteristics of watercourses in terms of section 21 (i) of the NWA for the purpose of rehabilitation, provided that the use is within the provision set out in the Notice. Note: GN1198 does not exempt the water user from compliance with any other provision of the Act or from any other applicable legislation, regulation, ordinance, or by-law. GA 1198 authorizes the Working for Wetlands Program and as a result, the DFFE does its submission in terms of that to DWS. This is the current approach that is Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 16 followed by DFFE in order to obtain authorization DALRRD Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 (Act 43 of 1983) CARA is a substantial legal instrument for protecting wetlands and remains in force to this day; specifically, Section 2, 6, 7, 8 and 13 • Reg 2: Cultivation of virgin soil • Reg 3: Cultivation of land with a slope • Reg 4: Protection of cultivated land against erosion through the action of water • Reg 5: Protection of cultivated land against erosion through the action of wind • Reg 6: Prevention of waterlogging and salination of irrigated land • Reg 7: Utilisation and Protection of vleis, marshes, water sponges and water courses • Reg 8: Regulating of the flow pattern of run-off water • Reg 9: Utilisation and protection of veld • Reg 10: Grazing capacity of veld • Reg 11: Number of animals that may be kept on veld • Reg 12: Prevention and control of veld fires • Reg 13: Restoration and reclamation of eroded land • Reg 14: Restoration and reclamation of disturbed or denuded land Fertilisers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947) Section 3(1)(2)(3), Section 7 The act provides for the registration of fertilisers, farm feeds, agricultural remedies, stock remedies, sterilising plants, and pest control operators with the aim of regulating or prohibiting the importation, sale, acquisition, disposal or use of fertilisers, farm feeds, agricultural remedies, and stock remedies. Furthermore, it governs the use of antimicrobials for growth promotion and prophylaxis/metaphylaxis and the purchase of over-the-counter (OTC) antimicrobials by the lay public (chiefly farmers). DFFE National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act 107 of 1998) • Section 24N relating to EMPr • Section 24P relating to financial provisions for remediation of environmental damage • Section 30 and Section 30A relating to emergency incidents. • 2014 EIA Regulations EIA Regs, BAR, Environmental Management Plan/Programme (EMP) Gazetted Environmental Management Programmes (EMPr) Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 17 National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act 107 of 1998) • The ‘duty of care’ principle enshrined in section 28 of the NEMA requires landowners to take reasonable measures to prevent, minimize and rectify environmental degradation on their properties • The WfWet programme also offers technical expertise to landowners and collaborates with local partners to set rehabilitation objectives with the intention of improving the integrity and functioning of ecosystems. Rehabilitation measures address both the causes and effects of degradation; NEMA also formally regulates a number of activities that negatively impact the environment, including wetlands, through published lists of activities that require Environmental Authorization prior to such activities commencing, and the establishment of a regulatory application framework including Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). Several listed activities are linked directly to activities within and in close proximity to wetlands • EIA process SECTION PROVISION Listing Notice 1 Activity 12 The development of dams or weirs, where the dam or weir, including infrastructure and water surface area, exceeds 100 m 2 within a watercourse Listing Notice 1; Activity 19 The infilling or depositing of any material of more than 10 cubic metres into, or the dredging, excavation, removal or moving of soil, sand, shells, shell grit, pebbles or rock of more than 10 cubic metres from a watercourse Listing Notice 2; Activity 24 The extraction or removal of peat or peat soils, including the disturbance of vegetation or soils in anticipation of the extraction or removal of peat or peat soils, but excluding where such extraction or removal is for the rehabilitation of wetlands in accordance with a maintenance management plan Listing Notice 3; Activity 12 The clearance of an area of 300 square metres or more of indigenous vegetation except where such clearance of indigenous vegetation is required for maintenance purposes undertaken in accordance with a maintenance management plan National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004) (NEM: BA) • Section 57 relating to restricted activities in terms of ecosystems that are threatened or in need of protection • Chapter 7 relating to permit requirements in terms of restricted activities. • Stipulates that Municipal Integrated Development Plans at the local scale must align with the national Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Basic Assessment Report (BAR) It establishes the South African Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) as the regulatory body on biodiversity and makes provision for several planning tools such as bioregional plans and biodiversity management plans Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 18 biodiversity framework and bioregional plans • Section 52 (1) (a) & (b) and 52(2) of the Act makes provision for the conservation of threatened ecosystems (i.e., including wetlands) in need of protection National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003) (NEM: PAA) The purpose of the Act is to effect a national system of representative protected areas to preserve the country’s biodiversity, natural landscapes, and seascapes, including wetlands and wetland dependent species, and manage such areas in a sustainable manner National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act 59 of 2008) (NEM: WA) The Act regulates disposal of waste at the local scale and requires municipalities to obtain waste management licenses and develop an integrated waste management plan which has to be submitted to and approved by the relevant MEC. Thereafter the IWMP needs to be integrated into the municipality’s Integrated Development Plan. Through the regulations above, water resources are protected and dumping of waste along with a suite of other activities which may adversely impact on wetlands are prohibited. 45, Chapter 8 relating to the provisions on contaminated land. Water Management License (WML), Licence in terms of section 45 National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, 2008 (Act. 24 of 2008) (NEM: ICMA) The Act provides for various mechanisms to regulate activities in the coastal zone, including coastal wetlands situated within the zone. Where a wetland falls within the coastal protection zone, additional considerations are relevant in making a decision whether to grant an environmental authorization. Municipalities are also required to adopt coastal management programmes whilst the regulations for formulating estuary management plans are also stipulated. Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 (Act.73 of 1989) (ECA) This Act has been superseded by NEMA. Nevertheless, a Section 31A directive can still be enacted by the competent authority, local authority or government institution to legally instruct a person that is currently causing or has caused damage to the environment (including wetlands) to either cease the activity in question or take steps, within a period specified in the directive to eliminate, reduce or prevent the damage danger or detrimental effect. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 19 South Africa Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) National Heritage Resources Act, 1999 (Act 25 of 1999) Section 38 Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) Permit in terms of section 48 Department of Minerals Resources and Energy (DMRE) Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 (Act 28 of 2002) Section 23, 27 Permit in terms of section 27 or right in terms of section 23 Municipalities By-laws Sanitation, Land use Management and Waste Management by-laws Applicable (per area) municipal by-laws need to be considered by every person(s) undertaking rehabilitation. Note: • The DWS GA 509 of August 2016 was revised and replaced with GA 4167 of December 2023. The GA makes provision for rehabilitation work in general that will enhance the PES of watercourses/ water resources. In general, the RMGs do not only concentrate on water use authorisations for new applications but also on historic activities that were undertaken without proper authorization. • The DWS does not authorize rehabilitation, but it authorizes the impeding, diverting, or changing of bed/banks of characteristics of watercourses; and if any of those activities in terms of rehabilitation constitute those water uses, they need to get authorized accordingly. • The RMGs provide guidance to other external persons (i.e., private) for any rehabilitation activities that may impede, divert, and change the bed/banks of characteristics of watercourses; if these other person(s) are impeding, diverting, and changing the bed/banks then they should apply for authorization for which there is a provision for within the DWS. 2.2 OTHER RELEVANT LEGISLATIVE TOOLS • Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act (No. 16 of 2013) (SPLUMA) – SPLUMA is the framework legislation regulating land use planning in South Africa and was developed to govern the planning permission and approval process, sets parameters for new developments and lists the various lawful land-uses in South Africa. Municipalities are required to plan and grant land use approval in line with the framework set out in SPLUMA. SPLUMA includes a number of key development principles which municipalities need to keep in mind during the regulation of land use and development within their jurisdictions. These principles should be integrated into the policies they develop for governance, specifically the integrated development plans developed by the municipality which must be aligned with SPLUMA and should include environmental components/considerations highlighted in environmental legislation. This provides opportunity for the incorporation of a wetland inventory layer into spatial development plans and land-use schemes at the local level providing an opportunity for important wetlands to be considered during the initial planning phase of any development. • Disaster Management Act, 2002 (Act 52 of 2002) (DMA) – the Act focuses on avoiding or decreasing the risk of disasters, as well as dealing with emergency response planning and mitigation measures during and post-disaster through a coordinated cogent policy. It also Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 20 requires national, provincial and municipal government institutions to compile disaster management plans at the appropriate scale, The importance of wetlands as critical ecological infrastructure which contributes to water quality enhancement and as part of buffering strategies against disasters such as droughts or floods should be integrated into these plans. Doing so could improve wetland management by elevating the importance of wetlands as a critical element of disaster management policy and implementation plans. • National Veld and Forest Fires Act, 1998 (No. 101 of 1998) (NVFFA) – the purpose of the Act is to prevent and combat veld, forest, and mountain Fires throughout the Republic. It provides for a variety of institutions, methods, and practices to achieve its purpose. Where the burning of fire breaks includes burning reeds in wetlands, the requirements of this Act must also be complied with. • National Heritage Resources Act, 1999 (Act 25 of 1999) (NHRA) – the Act aims to enable the provinces to establish heritage authorities which must adopt powers to protect and manage certain categories of heritage resources; to provide for the protection and management of conservation-worthy places and areas by local authorities; and. to provide for matters connected therewith. • Environmental provisions of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 (Act 28 of 2002) (MPRDA) to ensure that urban and commercial developments do not significantly affect or alter the natural state and function of wetlands. • Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (Act 32 of 2000) (MSA) – the Act requires municipalities to develop a Spatial Development Framework which comprises a key component of their Integrated Development Plans. Integrated Development Plans are a legal requirement that consists of a comprehensive five-year plan which is revised annually for an area that gives an overall framework for development. The aim of an IDP is to improve interdepartmental coordination at the municipal level as well as between local, provincial, and national government through a holistic plan directed at improving the quality of living within the municipality in question. Within the Spatial Development Framework consideration should be given to the protection of valuable natural resources such as ecological corridors, agricultural land and wetlands. There is also an opportunity to include environmental projects in the IDP. • Municipal by-laws Municipal by-laws such as Sanitation, Land use Management, Waste Management, Stormwater Management and Diffuse Water Quality Management by-laws [applicable (per coastal area)] need to be considered by every person(s) undertaking rehabilitation. 2.3 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PRINCIPLES Various policies and strategies inform Wetlands Rehabilitation Management in South Africa, and these include, but not limited, to the items: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 21 Policies and Strategies • National Development Plan (NDP) • The National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS III) (2023) • The National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP) (2018) • The Integrated Water Quality Management (IWQM) Policies (2016) and Strategies for South Africa (2017) • Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa – Second Edition (2023) • The Draft Environmental Rehabilitation Policy (2014) • National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan • National Biodiversity Assessment • National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPA) • The implementation of Gazetted Resource Directed Measures (RDM), particularly the Reserve, Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs), Water Resource Classification and Sources Directed Controls (SDCs) as per principles of improving water resources quality and reducing deterioration where applicable • The Catchment Management Strategies as informed by the National Water Policy and promotes the sustainable balance between utilisation and protection of water resources in a catchment. Key Water Resource Management Principles and Concepts • Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) - a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. It takes into account the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. • Social-Ecological System (SES) – are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). • Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) - aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets. Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - CBD encourage cooperation between governmental authorities and private sector in developing methods for sustainable uses of biological resources and the imperatives of the convention can be realised through measures aimed at the conservation and effective management of wetland ecosystems. • United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) - UNCCD is aimed “to achieve land degradation neutrality in order to restore the productivity of vast expanses of degraded land, improve the livelihoods of more than 1.3 billion people, and reduce the impacts of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 22 drought on vulnerable populations to build a future that avoids, minimises, and reverses desertification/land degradation and mitigates the effects of drought in affected areas at all levels ... to achieve a land degradation-neutral world consistent with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” (UNCCD, 2020). • United Nations Decade on Restoration - call for the protection and revival of ecosystems all around the world, for the benefit of people and nature. It aims to halt the degradation of ecosystems and restore them to achieve global goals. • Ramsar Convention on wetlands - the convention is an intergovernmental treaty with the following vision statement: “Wetlands are conserved, wisely used, restored and their benefits are recognized and valued by all.” Their mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world” (DWS, 2018). • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - the objective of this convention is to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations “at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system.” (UNFCCC, 2020). In addition, UNFCCC moderates REDD+ which is a process that supports countries' efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, foster conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. • Chapter 1 of NEMA principles – guiding all organs of state regarding the approach they should have to environmental management (including wetland management). Section 2 (4) (a) (r) mentions wetlands specifically: “sensitive, vulnerable, highly dynamic or stressed ecosystems, such as coastal shores, estuaries, wetlands and similar systems require specific attention in management and planning procedures, especially where they are subject to significant human resources usage and development pressure”. 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES A comprehensive process of water resources rehabilitation requires attention to be given across the board for characteristics of watercourses, namely: • Hydrology (surface flow and runoff); • Geomorphology; • Water quality; • Habitat; • Biota; and • Groundwater flows. For all the above-mentioned characteristics, there is limited availability of integrated rehabilitation of frameworks designed to address all characteristics watercourses. Consequently, existing rehabilitation guidelines often only address certain aspects and do not provide a complete solution. Generally, rehabilitation concerning shaping, re-vegetation, and alien eradication is limited under the NWA. Rehabilitation interventions and practices that focus and include water quality issues such as pollution from WWTWs, mines and from non-point sources are also limited. There are multiple concerns around issues of rehabilitation and the main factors are poor planning, lack of funding as well as poor Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 23 compliance and implementation of legislation in terms of buffers to watercourses. Therefore, the need for the development of rehabilitation guidelines with a focus on characteristics of watercourses is essential. To this end, to develop such guidelines, it is important to consider factors (drivers and responses) that underpin water ecosystem health and functionality including the interactions between the physical patterns, products (e.g., ecosystem services) and materials (e.g., aquatic ecosystems). Figure 6 below depicts the Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) components for ecosystems. This figure demonstrates that water flow, water quality and geomorphology are the main drivers of EWRs and the habitat (instream and riparian habitat) and biota (fish, aquatic, invertebrates, and riparian vegetation) being the responses but are interlinked. Figure 6: The Ecological Water Requirements of the Reserve including drivers and responses Source: adapted from Beechie and Bolton, 1999 3.2 LINK BETWEEN WATER RESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES The rehabilitation of water resources is directly linked to the rehabilitation of the characteristics of watercourses (drivers and responses) because impacts on water resources may be as equally prevalent on all these characteristics of watercourses. Figure 7 below illustrates the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 24 Figure 7: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. 4. GUIDELINES FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES 4.1 HYDROLOGY Hydrology is the science which deals with terrestrial waters, their occurrence, circulation and distribution on our planet, their physical and chemical properties, and their interaction with the physical and biological environment, including the effect on them of the activity of man (IHE,1998). The hydrological cycle is the circulation of water within the earth's hydrosphere, involving changes in the physical state of water between liquid, solid, and gas phases and the exchange of water between atmosphere, ocean, land, surface, and subsurface waters. There is interaction between different components of the hydrological system and water movement and storage. 4.1.1 Components of the Hydrological Cycle The hydrological cycle is divided into various components. These components are listed below, and they form an important part of the development of the guidelines: • Direct rainfall; • Surface flow and runoff; • Interflow; • Baseflow/Groundwater flow; • Stream flow; and • Evapotranspiration. 4.1.2 Definitions of the components of the Hydrological Cycle The below component of the hydrological cycle will be the focus of the guidelines. The component is described below as follows: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 25 • Surface flow/surface runoff – total stream discharge of water, including all surface and subsurface flows derived from rainfall on a catchment surface, usually expressed in cubic metres of water yield per year. 4.1.3 Wetland Hydrology Impacts Wetlands are important to local communities in terms of providing ecological services and goods. Important services provided by the wetlands are attributed to the wetland form, function, overall biodiversity and the system’s hydrology and its interactions to the catchment where it is located. These includes stream flow regulation, retention of sediment, nutrient trapping, and biodiversity maintenance. The hydrology of wetlands and their natural inter- and intra-annual hydrological regime cycle of their ecosystems are important. According to the NBA 2018 (SANBI, 2019), changes to the hydrological regime of inland wetlands negatively impacts their biodiversity with the potential to lead to ecosystem collapse. Water is the key driver of wetland formation, and it is essential to their functionality as many ecosystem services are attributed to the manner in which wetlands regulate water fluxes. However, various impacts modify wetland integrity and ecological connectivity, and these impacts are attributed to the following: • Agricultural activities relating to extensive grazing and cultivation within the wetlands and the catchment in general. Overgrazing influences and modifies the runoff characteristics of catchment as well as other soil surface modification used in agriculture; • Mining activities which destroy the wetlands or alter the wetland’s hydrological regime and water quality characteristics; • Grazing and trampling within the wetland impacting upon the preferential flows within the wetland; • The poor management of roads, fires, incision of the channel at places, sediment plumes and the diversion of water impacts the system’s hydrology; • Excessive surface runoff causes headcuts in wetlands; • Alteration of surface runoff resulting in straightened channel erosion and formation of gullies within the wetland due to higher-than-normal flow velocity • Over-abstraction and changes in flow drivers have a direct impact on ecological category, habitat, and biota; • Poor Land Management practices such as agricultural practices interrupt flow paths and connectivity between wetlands and groundwater and other water resource components such as rivers, groundwater, and estuaries; • Poor stormwater management around wetlands. 4.1.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Hydrology The guidelines to be developed will address erosion (gully and headcut) formation within wetlands caused by (amongst others) the discharge of high water-velocity from roads; increased peak flows from upstream portions of the wetland; grazing and trampling which alter preferential flows. Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of altered and incised wetland channels due to erosion (gully and headcut) formation PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 26 Step 1: At a desktop level, employ available tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to determine and identify the areas within the wetland which are incised or impacted by erosion. Soil erosion mapping can also be undertaken to ascertain the extent of the impact. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Identify and determine the causes of erosion. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct a site visit survey with the relevant specialists (i.e., Wetland Specialist, Engineer and Environmental Assessment Practitioner) to: • Describe the hydro-geomorphic setting and characteristics of the wetland impacted. • Assess the overall health of the wetland using WET-Health Guidelines (WRC, 2008; 2020). Map and delineate the wetland impacted and clearly show the extent. This will inform the HGM type, rehabilitation objectives and methods or techniques to be employed. • Identify the specific impacts to be addressed by rehabilitation and describe it in more detail where necessary. For example, for headcut erosion, the specific dimensions (i.e., width, depth and length) and level of activity of headcuts would be described. • Field observation, describe in detail areas impacted and the type of erosion impacts observed. • Describe the following: o Soil type: indicate whether the soil is dispersive or not o The foundations: indicate whether there are stable soil horizons or rock layers, etc., present lower down in the profile or in the floor of the erosion feature. • Below are some of the examples of erosion that might be prevalent: o Sheet, rill, interrill or tunnel erosion o Gully erosion; o Headcut erosion; o Donga erosion; o Stream channel/bank erosion. Step 2: Fixed-point photography (in accordance with the guidelines outlined in WET-Rehab-Evaluate: in Cowden and Kotze, 2008) should be considered when undertaking fieldwork pertaining to observation made for the wetland in question. Step 3: Site layout, rehabilitation objectives together with the proposed interventions must be agreed by the team upon completing the site visit. In selecting the interventions, consider the following: • Intervention option(s) selected must be the most appropriate to achieve the rehabilitation objectives. • Appropriate dimensions of the wetland locations must be measured in order to be able to design and calculate the bill of quantities for the interventions. Step 4: An Environmental Authorization (EA) inclusive of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Basic Assessment Process must be lodged with the National Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and Environment (DFFE) for rehabilitation activities in terms of the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA). Below is a list of some key supporting documentations for the application: • Basic Assessment Report • Wetland Assessment Report Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 27 • Rehabilitation Plan Report • Designs and Interventions Report – the report must include the following: o Hydrological assessment to inform the selection of the design flow to be applied to the intervention. o Construction materials to be selected based on site specific criteria. o The intervention design demonstrating a plan view, a longitudinal section and front elevation at appropriate scales, and appropriate dimensions. o Bills of quantities calculated for the designs including cost estimates . Step 5: A Water Use License Application (WULA)/General Authorization (GA) must be lodged with the Department of Water and Sanitation in order for certain wetland rehabilitation activities to be undertaken. These activities include ‘impeding or diverting the flow of water in a watercourse’ and ‘altering the bed, banks, course or characteristics of a watercourse’. where they are specifically undertaken for the purposes of rehabilitating a wetland for conservation purposes. Below is a list of some key supporting documentations for the applications: • Wetland Delineation and Assessment Report - this report must clearly demonstrate the impacts on resource quality characteristics (impact/modification to flow regime as ecosystem drivers); the proposed rehabilitation interventions and the possible changes to PES and EIS of the wetland system. • Environmental Impacts Assessment Report Note: No wetland rehabilitation work may be undertaken until such time that an EA and WUL/GA is granted by the DFFE and DWS respectively. In addition, the rehabilitation work should be in accordance with the CARA regulations. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation will entail addressing the incised wetland channel due to erosion using the appropriate measures. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. As an example, when the primary threat to the wetland was identified as headcut erosion threatening to propagate through the wetland; the appropriate rehabilitation objective would be to halt and prevent the propagation of the erosion headcut using various methods/techniques. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Employ the appropriate rehabilitation methods or techniques (Figure 8-12) informed by the submitted and approved Designs and Interventions Report (refer Phase 2 to see what the report entails) Step 2: Employ one or a combination of the below available soft and hard engineering interventions. (Note: these examples and guidance are informed by local knowledge acquired from the Working for Wetland Programme Rehabilitation Interventions including the Wetland Management Series applied in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 28 Figure 8: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for erosion (headcuts) impacts in a Hillslope seep. Figure 9: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for straightened channel erosion. •Erosion problems emanating from construction of a road intersecting wetland. •Surface runoff emanating from road causing headcut within wetland. •Headcuts on either side of the terrestrial island. •Channelled flows into the gully through a centre of wetland. IMPACTS •Concrete geocell chute with concrete cut off walls. •Cut off walls on either side of the chute to ensure no surface water enters the other headcuts. •Concrete geocell chute with associated cut-off walls. GeoCell (plastic compartments). •Concrete-capped geocell earthen weir to partially deactivate the straightened channel. INTERVENTIONS (Examples) •Erosion due to higher-than- normal water flow velocity resulting in straightened channel. IMPACTS •Concrete-capped geocell earthen weir to partially deactivate the straightened channel. •Spillway height of the weir to be designed to allow base flows to re-enter into the historic channel in a controlled manner. •Gabion structure to control any sub-surface water movement. INTERVENTIONS (Examples) Hillslope seep Channelled valley bottom Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 29 Figure 10: Example of rehabilitation intervention for channelled flow impacts. Figure 11: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for structures impeding flow. •Flow channelled into the gully creating high energy flow. The gully erosion led to the headcut. •Erosion channels forming deeply incised channels. IMPACTS •Concrete causeway to partially deactivate the straightened channel. •Earthworks-backfill drain -Filling the eroded gully with material that was excavated and stockpiled within the wetland. •Construction of a 500mm earthen levy along the main channel to divert surface flows away from the main channel to foster diffuse flows in the central wetland. INTERVENTIONS (Examples) •Stream flow concentration due to roads, berms, channels contributing to significant erosion). •Channel incisions and water flow interruption. IMPACTS •Remove berm to the natural ground level. •Erosion channel sloping and revegetation with local indigenous species. INTERVENTIONS (Examples) Unchannelled valley bottom Floodplain Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 30 Figure 12: Examples of rehabilitation interventions for peatland. Box 1 Notes: Although the above intervention types and structures are packaged according to various wetland types, the main factor informing and dictating the most suitable intervention is the type of wetland and impact prevalent on site. Below is a list of some commonalities observed across the various recommended interventions regardless of the type of wetland in question: • Structures such as gabions, berms and weirs are suitable for diverting or redistributing water to more natural flow paths, or for the prevention of erosion by unnatural flow rates that result from unsustainable land use practices or development; • Concrete and gabion weirs act as settling ponds which reduce flow velocity or re-disperse water across former wetland areas thereby re-establishing natural flow paths; • Concrete or gabion structures stabilise headcut or other erosion and prevent gullies; • Earth or gabion structure plugs/weirs are best suitable for raising channel floors and reduction of water velocity; • Concrete and/or reno mattress strips are best suited for road crossings to address trampling and preferential flow paths causing erosion forming in wetlands; • Engineering designs like groyns, rock mattress at angles, appropriate size rip rap, geotextiles, topsoil, vegetation is preferred above concrete and vertical placed gabion baskets. •Theforestryplantationwater abstraction,draininganddesiccation contributetoloweringofthewater tableduringdrought,resultingin extensivepeatfiresandprovidingan environmentfavourableforinvasive vegetation. •Erosionattributedbyfarmingactivities. IMPACTS •Removethetreesfromthedetermined bufferzonebasedonpeatlandHGM unitanditshydrology •Adisasterresponseprotocolfor peatlandstopreventandcontrolpeat firesaswellasrewetdegradedsites. •Gabionsanderosion-controlweirs. INTERVENTIONS (Examples) Peatlands Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 31 PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Undertake routine and systematic inspection of the rehabilitated wetlands to determine whether the conditions are improving or further degrading. The following are some of the parameters/variables to be monitored depending on the impacts: • Water levels across the site – wetland hydrology function. • Habitat conditions. • Headcut or gully expansion (or the lack thereof). • Sediment levels trap behind structures. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcome. • Determine maintenance objectives. Additional management measures must be implemented in the event the conditions do not improve. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 2: Control and clearing of Invasive Alien Species from wetlands and their immediate catchments to reduce water uptake from wetlands. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the areas within the wetland that are invaded by invasive alien species. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS and DFFE Provincial Offices) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 2: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to identify the areas within the wetland which is invaded i.e., invasion of alien species along the channel of a wetland. Step 3: Using information obtained from Google Earth satellite images and Remote Sensing as ground truthing to describe in detail the zone within the wetland that is affected in terms of the following: • Species types i.e., woody alien vegetation; • Density and the zone within the wetland into which invasion occurs. • Visual description of the zone affected; • The conditions upstream or downstream of the affected wetland zone. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct a site visit survey to accurately confirm and ascertain the preliminary findings Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 32 acquired in Phase 1. Below are some important aspects to consider when undertaking fieldwork pertaining to observation made for the wetland in question: • Photographs and GPS co-ordinates; • Fixed-point photography (in accordance with the guidelines outlined in WET-Rehab- Evaluate: Cowden and Kotze, 2008); • WET-Health information (allowing the comparison of wetland ecological integrity before and after rehabilitation activities); and • Details relating to the calculation of estimated hectare equivalents affected. • Species growth form (i.e., tree, seedling, or creeper); Step 2: The below summarised list of steps (Figure 13) must be considered during the planning and assessment phase of alien vegetation clearing. These steps are adapted from WRC (2016) and applied when undertaking clearing of alien vegetation for rivers but can equally be applicable for clearing of alien species invading wetlands. Figure 13: Planning and Assessment Phase steps for alien vegetation control and clearing Source: adapted from WRC, 2016 PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation of alien vegetation must be defined and be clear at the start. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • To improve biodiversity by allowing the establishment / generation of natural indigenous wetland flora; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 33 • To increase space by clearing vegetation to increase the conveyance or the natural flow of water; • To rehabilitate to a more natural wetland flow regime to restore natural levels. PHASE 4 – Execution: Alien vegetation clearing and control methods are divided into three main categories, namely physical (or mechanical) control, chemical control, and biocontrol (Figure 14). A combination of these approaches may be implemented for the clearing and control of invasive plant species. These methods must be supported by a Plant Species Plan developed by a landscape architect or botanist. Figure 14: Alien vegetation clearing and control methods. Note: The chemical control method which entails the application of herbicides should be carried out in accordance with the stipulations of the Fertilisers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947). Box 2 contains information on other known methods that should be considered for the clearing and control of alien vegetation. Box 2 Cultural Control Methods focus on altering the environmental conditions to discourage the growth and spread of invasive plants i.e., altering water levels, modifying soil conditions, implementing proper land management practices, or promoting the growth of native plant species to outcompete invasives. Preventive Measures includes early detection and rapid response to new infestations, implementing strict biosecurity measures to prevent the introduction and spread of invasive plants, and promoting awareness and education about the risks associated with invasive species. •Entailsmanual&physical controlsforcomplete removalordestructionof plants. •Examplesincludehand pulling,ring-barking, cutting,slashing,fellingand burning. PHYSICAL / MECHANICAL CONTROL •Entailsuseofspeciessuch aspathogensandgrazers tocontrolinvasivespecies. •Biologicalcontrolagents includeinsects,mites,fungi andbacteria. •Theyarehighlyspecificin thepartofplantandtarget specificpartsoftheplant i.e.,stems. BIOCONTROL •Entailsapplicationof registeredherbicidesat pescribedratesusing suitableequipment,trained andskilledlabour. •Classifiedintoselectiveand non-selectiveherbicides. CHEMICAL CONTROL Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 34 PHASE 5 – Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Monitoring of rehabilitated areas must be undertaken to: • Ensure that treatment methods employed are adequate and effective to ensure that no additional measures are required; • Allow learning from past practices, so that ongoing invasive alien plant clearing initiatives are constantly improving and are in accordance with seasonal changes. • Prevent re-growth from spreading and taking cleared areas over. The following monitoring suggestions are recommended by WRC (2016): • A fixed-point photographic record should be collected, showing the affected wetland before, during and at regular time periods after initial alien clearing has taken place; • Historical Google Earth images should be used over time, to provide a spatial record of clearing extent and effects; • Monitoring using tools such as remote sensing and GIS. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 4.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY 4.2.1 Description Geomorphology is a science focused on understanding Earth surface processes and landscape (such as wetlands, mountains, valleys, river channels and estuaries) evolution (Keller, et.al., 2020). It is also regarded as the study of physical features on the earth and their relation to geological structures. Geomorphological understanding is central to environmental flows because it is the interaction between flow, form, and substrate that influences habitat type, condition, availability and biotic use across space and time (Meitzen et. al., 2013). The long-term geomorphological evolution is strictly controlled by the interplay of tectonic activity and climate changes, and close to coastal zones, sea-level oscillations also contribute to modifying this Note: Alien vegetation must be replaced with the appropriate indigenous vegetation. This is especially important when trees are removed, indigenous tree species must be brought in. Furthermore, alien management must be in a phased approached both eradication (to manage re-growth) and revegetation (to ensure growth success). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 35 natural system, as well as anthropogenic activities which also contribute to the modification of wetlands ecosystems. Wetlands are key components of many landscapes worldwide and are regarded as providing a wide range of direct and indirect socio-economic services to the human beings. Hence, understanding how wetlands are structured, how they function and how they may change is important. It is therefore very important to note that the geomorphology of wetlands is an important aspect that needs to be considered when doing wetland rehabilitation. Figure 15 below is an illustration of the relationship between wetlands process, geomorphology, climate change and human activities. Figure 15: Relationship between wetland processes, geomorphology, climate change and human activities Source: Tooth, et. al., 2015 4.2.2 Factors Influencing Geomorphological Impacts Scale is an important consideration, with processes-forming interactions occurring over a huge range of space (spatial scale) and time (temporal scale) (Charlton, 2008). The two considerations for management that come from geomorphology is time and space. Geomorphological processes in wetlands are dominated by erosional and sedimentation processes with soil erosion being a major environmental problem that is associated with geomorphology. Such that, once the topsoil has been removed, the lower soil layers are exposed. These layers have poor structure and are low in organic matter and nutrients, as a result they are less permeable leading to increased overland flows which increases the sedimentation supplied to wetlands (Freeman and Rowntree, 2005). The sediment Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 36 deposited (from eroded areas upstream) in the wetland changes the surface topography of the wetland, might divert stream flow and/or change the slope, steepening it, which results in incision (erosion). Human interventions on the other hand have had an influence on modification of wetland systems for many years (but a relatively short time span measured in geological time scales). Activities such as scouring of the channel bed deepens the channel, therefore channel engineering, deforestation, vegetation clearing, agriculture, and mining activities affects the flow of water and production of sediment. 4.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology Grazing in riparian areas within wetlands is a natural phenomenon, however, excessive grazing causes alteration of the natural vegetation cover, reduces vegetation and habitat complexity. These changes reduce the flood attenuation and sediment trapping efficiencies of wetlands. In a typical catchment, overgrazing leads to degraded surfaces, increased runoff into the wetland with sheet, rill and gully erosion which further result in most sediment being transported into the wetland, altering its surface and topography characteristics. Other indirect effects of grazing include trampling within wetlands, and the creation of localised erosion gullies, while severely trampled riparian areas may be more vulnerable to erosion. Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of over-grazing and vegetation alteration to improve wetland vegetation growth and sediment trapping. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Using Remote Sensing, Google Earth Images and historic satellite imagery to identify the areas within the wetland that have lost vegetation cover and to inform changes and rate of changes. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 2: Identify and describe the main causes and effects of loss of vegetation cover i.e., overgrazing causes loss of vegetation which leads to erosion impacts within the wetland. Step 3: Describe the biome and vegetation types within which the wetland in question is located. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct a ground truthing survey to accurately ascertain area(s) within the wetland affected by vegetation loss. The survey results must include the following: • All areas affected by vegetation loss including photographs and GPS co-ordinates; • The causes and effects of vegetation loss; • The type(s) of vegetation prevalent on site; • The extent of the affected areas with the details relating to estimated hectares. Step 2: Map and delineate the areas clearly indicating the extent in hectares of the area(s) affected. This step must also consider upstream and downstream conditions of the area(s) affected. Step 6: Scientific buffers to be determined and implemented. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 37 The objectives of rehabilitating altered vegetation must be defined and be clear at the start. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • To re-establish vegetation cover with the potential to restrict sediment loss while deactivating causes of erosion. The resultant trapping of sediment would thus be valuable in that it would promote characteristic wetland vegetation growth. • A secondary objective is to halt the sediment lost through erosion which could possibly add to siltation of the water resources downstream. • Shaping to better or original topography. • Ensuring that carrying capacity and livestock grazing programmes are determined and implemented. PHASE 4: Execution Vegetation alteration and loss as well as overgrazing (which include trampling) are the main impacts identified in this scenario. Natural engineering interventions (see below Figure 16) are recommended for this scenario to offer successful rehabilitation methods. This includes but is not limited to the following: • Gabion structures such as mattresses, blankets, baskets, geofabric liners; • Sediment fence. Figure 16: Interventions for addressing vegetation loss impacts PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Monitoring of rehabilitated and revegetated areas must be undertaken periodically to ensure that interventions methods employed are adequate and effective. Additional measures must be implemented in the event the monitoring results show no substantial changes i.e., if erosion persists •Implement Gabion structures (mattresses, blankets or baskets) to provide a platform for desired wetland vegetation growth. •Fence off sensitive areas within the wetland to keep grazers out and to allow for the re-establishment of vegetation. Sediment fences must also be implemeted to trap sediments emanating from eroded areas. PHYSICAL CONTROL INTERVENTIONS •Develop and implement revegetation plan/strategy should be implemented (whether seeding or mosaic harvesting) within the eroded areas to promote vegetation growth. PLAN/STRATEGIES: i.e revegetation plan/strategy Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 38 after revegetation, erosion control geo-fabric blankets should be placed over the re-worked area to limit erosion until vegetation has fully established. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 4.3 WATER QUALITY 4.3.1 Description The primary water quality constituents that affect wetlands are the concentrations and/or loading of phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients, ammonia, various heavy metals, suspended solids, and their load of absorbed compounds (Turpie et al., 2010). 4.3.2 Types of Water Quality Impacts Water quality in wetlands is threatened by livestock, lack of properly designed drainage, water abstraction, climate change, poor agricultural practices, and construction (earthworks) (Newton et al, 2020). Point sources of pollution emanating from industries also pose a risk to wetlands. Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) are an emerging concern to wetlands, and they emanate from agricultural runoff. This also includes contaminants and pathogens of emerging concern; Emerging pathogens and/or CECs including endocrine disruptors emanating from pharmaceutical industries enter the systems from WWTWs and contribute to pollution of wetlands. The impacts of these activities and encroachment include (Mao et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2018): • Excessive nutrient availability caused by rapid algal growth which obstructs sunlight and in the case of blue-green algal blooms, production of harmful toxins to humans, animals, and the environment; • The introduction of contaminants such as fungicides, insecticide, and herbicides; • Loss of vegetation; Box 3 Notes: • Prior to implementing the revegetation plan, it is important to ensure that the affected area accumulates sufficient sediment deposition and thereafter reworked and sloped appropriately to promote vegetation growth and stabilisation; • Local indigenous grass seed mixture must be used to revegetate the area; • Determine and implement livestock management grazing carrying capacity plans. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 39 • An upsurge of soil salinity as naturally occurring soil salts migrate to the surface, thus hindering vegetation growth; • Acid and metal release into the soil, thus compromising water quality, which may result in fish disease, acid-tolerant species dominance, groundwater contamination, and corrosion-related infrastructure damage; • Acid mine drainage emanating from mining activities; • Discharge of raw and inadequately treated wastewater into watercourses due to malfunctioning WWTWs; • Poor stormwater design. 4.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality Water quality is globally impacted by human activities, and nutrient levels in water resources are constantly rising. This is mainly due to agricultural runoff (from agro-chemicals, drug residues, saline drainage, organic matter), urban non-point source pollution and sewage (Doetterl et al., 2012; UNEP, 2016). The associated waste, which includes manure, has serious consequences for water quality. Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of AMD water decanting from operations into wetlands. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify, quantify and trace the source of AMD i.e., AMD decanting from the operations. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: At a desktop level and from existing information, assess the conditions of the opencast pit or underground operations to determine the following: o Dewatering rates (if there is such an activity taking place); o Seepage rate into the operations; o Recharge rate into the operations; o Groundwater levels; and o Lowest topographic level (where regional piezometric head of the aquifer intersects the topographical setting – This is important because decant/seepage point(s) are normally located here. Step 4: Collect groundwater samples from the operations in question and submit them to an accredited lab for groundwater quality analysis. The results from the analysis will inform the treatment methods/options to be employed for water that will be dewatered from the operations. Step 4: Collect waste rock material samples for geochemical assessment. The results of the assessment will inform whether the backfill material is suitable to be used for backfilling the operations. The material to be used for backfilling must be non-acid generating. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Rehabilitation of AMD water emanating from the operations trigger Section 21 water uses. Step 2: The person undertaking rehabilitation must determine the water uses likely to be triggered by the rehabilitation activities. Examples are: o Section 21 (j) – dewatering of groundwater. o Section 21 (g) – temporary storage of water pumped. o Section 21 (f) – discharging the treated water. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 40 o Section 21 (c) and (i) for decant in regulated areas. o Exemption from Regulation 4(c) of GN704 for backfilling activities into the operations. Step 3: The person undertaking rehabilitation activities must determine the below: o Geohydrological conditions of the operations terms of the geology, aquifers, inflows and outflow rates, and groundwater levels. o Rates of inflow and outflow in the operations. o Geochemical assessment detailing the type of waste material to be used for backfilling. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives Define clear rehabilitation objectives based on information gathered in Phase 1 and 2. Below are some of the common aims and objectives of the rehabilitation of opencast pit which decants into water resources: • Pump water from the operations to reduce and maintain groundwater levels below decanting levels. • Treat AMD water to acceptable standards and reuse. • Backfill the opencast pit and use the rehabilitated land for other purposes i.e., agricultural purposes. PHASE 4: Execution Figure 17 and 18 presents both passive and active methods that can be employed for rehabilitation of decanting mining operations Figure 17: Passive Treatment Methods. •Pump/dewaterAMDwaterfrom theoperationstoensurethe hydraulicheadisreducedbelow decantinglevels •The pumped water must be captured, retained, and managed within the mine water systemsi.e., lined evaporation dams PUMP & TREAT •Intercept polluted seepagefrom the operations through concrete trenches •The design of the trench gradient must be such that the water is free- flowing without eroding the channel and polluting water resources SEEPAGE INTERCEPTION •Backfilltheoperationsusing materialsuchaswasterock materialthathasbeensubjected togeochemicaltesting •Thematerialshouldbenon-acid generating •Backfillingordepositionof materialbackintotheoperations mustfollowascientificallysound backfillingmethodology BACKFILLING Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 41 Figure 18: Active Treatment Method PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring • Pump and/or Dewatering – Monitor the groundwater levels within the operations daily and report to the DWS on a monthly basis. • Seepage Interception – monitor the quality of water at the trenches and downstream of the constructed wetland to assess the changes in quality of water over time. o Backfilled opencast area - develop and implement a dedicated monitoring programme to monitor the groundwater level recovery and pit water quality of the rehabilitated/backfilled area. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 4.3.4 Special considerations to be applied for Rehabilitation using Passive Treatment Methods Consideration must be given to the passive treatment methods to include constructed wetlands and nature-based solutions. Constructed wetlands have proven to be effective in treating AMD at the Intheeventtherearehighvolumesof AMDwaterencountered(>5ℓ/s), treatmentstrategiesmustbeinvestigated andimplementedinordertorenderthe watersuitableforreuse. TREATMENT STRATEGY If there is still a residual treated water, one must evaluate and negotiate alternatives options with DWS i.e., discharge of such water back into the water resource. DISCHARGE INTO WATER RESOURCE Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 42 resource because they combine naturally occurring biogeochemical, geochemical, and physical processes. Scenario 2: Rehabilitation of wetland contamination due to lack of wastewater and industrial treatment facilities or the release improperly treated wastewater into watercourses. Effective wastewater effluent treatment should be prioritized in order to avoid adverse health effects on users and the aquatic ecosystem. The discharge of raw and inadequately treated wastewater into watercourses has both short and long-term environmental and human health consequences. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Using WET-Health (Version 2.0) tool, an assessment of the integrity of the wetland should be undertaken, this can give a clear indication of the deviation of the wetland from its natural reference condition guided by vegetation, hydrology, geomorphology, and water quality. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS DFFE Provincial Offices) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located i.e., local landowners, as well as other interested and affected parties to assess social uses of the wetland in question. Step 3: Undertake a desktop assessment to identify the WWTWs and industries whose effluent may negatively impact water quality of the Wetlands. Step 4: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to map disturbance units, which show the extent of various types of disturbances caused by water quality impacts within the wetlands. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: This phase will require site visits attended by a team consisting of a wetland ecologist, Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs), and Independent Design Engineers for example, to assess the extent to which the discharge of improperly treated wastewater from a treatment plant has affected the water quality (i.e., sediment contamination and nutrients) of a wetland. Step 2: Investigate the source of pollution and level of water quality decline over time in that area. Step 2: Request local government officials (municipal as well as Provincial DWS/CMAs and DFFE Offices) and local NGOs community forums responsible to assist with identifying point sources of pollution to provide guidance on available regulatory processes. Step 3: Investigate other sources of pollution and water quality e.g., non-point sources of pollution. Step 4: Undertake the following: o Analysis of the historical data (water quality) to see the trend and reference point. o Collect the actual final effluent water samples from the sources i.e., WWTW and industrial facility. o Collect monthly water quality samples from the resource i.e., Wetland. - 1 upstream of the WWTW and industrial facility discharge points. - 1 downstream of the WWTW and industrial facility discharge points. o Have samples analysed at an accredited laboratory to determine the water quality at the sources and resource, respectively. Step 2: Undertake the following: o Compare laboratory-generated water quality data to the expected state for the identification of areas of concern. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 43 o Data analysis should be compared against the RQOs/RWQOs, or Aquatic Ecosystem Water Quality Standards if they have not yet been established for that catchment. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objective should be to rehabilitate the present ecological state of the wetland water quality by taking the impact of the discharge into account. Furthermore, these objectives should be set in accordance with the relevant stakeholders. The rehabilitation objectives should be based on information and data gathered in Phases 1 and 2. Common objectives are to manage and prevent poor effluent from WWTWs and industrial facilities from discharging into water resources i.e., wetlands. In-situ treatment of contaminated water and soil through microbes and ozone or dilution respectively, is another example of an objective that could be set depending on the magnitude of the impact on site. Improvements of existing WWTWs or industrial facilities (resulting in untreated effluent composition or volume) can be implemented. PHASE 4: Execution The following steps must be followed by practitioners for the rehabilitation of water quality activities: Step 1: Implement environmentally sustainable solutions through stakeholder engagements, communication within the water sector and between government departments sector, and between DFFE and other relevant government departments. Step 2: Undertake the following: o Ensure treatment of effluent from point sources prior to discharge; o Effluent which does not meet the discharge standards should be temporarily stored for further intervention and/or treatment; and o Monitor the effluent before discharge to ensure that it is of acceptable quality standard. Step 3: Undertake the following: o Implement surface water management around the WWTWs and industrial facilities; o Install cut-off trenches around the facilities to separate clean and dirty water and direct clean water back into natural drainage lines and the natural environment; and o The dirty water channels should be drained to an emergency holding dam for treatment. Step 4: Construct temporary berms along the rivers to prevent further offsite migration/discharge of effluent ending into the river. The primary response however should be to improve the efficacy and capacity of the WWTW, to avoid effluent non-compliance. Box 4 contains information on other known methods that should be considered for poor water quality associate with effluent discharge from WWTW. Box 4 Complementing treatment at WWTW running at capacity or having treatment challenges with floating treatment wetlands, constructed wetlands, microbial treatment, and algae as phytoremediation to be integrated upon feasibility investigation. Note: In general, the approach of DWS to water quality management is to promote the reduction of discharges of waste or water containing waste into water resources. Where waste discharges are Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 44 unavoidable, the impact on other users, water resources and the public are controlled by specifying the permissible levels and concentrations of the constituents of the discharge in the conditions of authorisation. In the case of emergency situations, where harmful substances are accidentally or negligently discharged into water resources, the NWA (Chapter 3, Part 5, Section 20) provides for those who have caused the pollution responsible for remedying its effects. However, Catchment Management Agencies may, where necessary, accelerate the clean-up process by arranging for the work to be done by others and recovering any costs incurred from the responsible party. At present all pollution incidents must be reported to the DWS so that appropriate responses can be co-ordinated, in conjunction with the National Disaster Management Centre, with the relevant emergency services and disaster management centres. Ultimately this responsibility will be passed to the catchment management agencies. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Step 1: • Undertake monthly water quality monitoring in the rivers depending on the volume discharge, local municipal by-laws, and the type of permit allowed; • Continuously assess WWTWs and industrial facilities to assist with defining the quality of the water and extend to which treatment is required (records of up to a year are desirable to characterise the state of the of the facilities). Step 2: Monitoring parameters for WWTWs: • Nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), and bacteria (E.coli or coliforms). Monitoring parameters for industries: • Metal concentrations and distributions at least once every 3-5 years for industrial facility; • Metal concentrations in tissues of fish/mussels (bio-accumulation) at least once every 3-5 years. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Note: The expected outcomes of monitoring and evaluation can be achieved through the use of available knowledge hubs on emerging pathogens and/or CECs emanating from pharmaceutical industries, agricultural runoff, WWTWs etc. Pesticide residues, transformation products and endocrine disruptors in wetlands should be considered for monitoring, where applicable. The outputs of monitoring should be reported to the relevant international frameworks i.e., SDGs, GBF. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 45 4.4 HABITAT 4.4.1 Description Habitats are areas that provide sufficient nutrition, water, shelter, and living space for wetland animals. The four habitat zones found in the majority of wetlands are (i) in the water (aquatic), (ii) around the edge of the water (emergent), (iii) around the edge of the wetland (fringing/riparian) and iv) sediment as a habitat. Together, these wetland zones offer the fundamental characteristics of a wetland which include a range of vegetation types, aquatic features (e.g., islands and snags), connectivity (both over land and through the water), and water (Sieben et al., 2014). 4.4.2 Types of Habitat Impact A functioning, healthy wetland is essential for safeguarding the environment and the general public. However, most of the wetlands in South Africa are endangered as historically they were viewed as wastelands (Dale et al., 2000; Phethi and Gumbo, 2019). Human activities result in wetland habitat degradation and loss by altering water quality, quantity, and flow rates, pollutant increase, and species composition interference due to alien species introduction. Poor landscape planning/design practices, lack of development of scientific buffers, indiscriminate clearing, lack of protection of riparian habitat, overgrazing, illegal harvesting for wood to make ornaments/furniture are amongst other impacts on Table 5 outlines some of the anthropogenic activities that cause wetland habitat degradation. Table 5: Types of factors affecting wetland habitat Properties Type of impact/activity Vegetation damage • Domestic animal grazing • Alien invasive plant species introduction that competes with natives • Vegetation removal for peat extraction or crop production Pollution inputs • Sediments, fertiliser, nutrient addition, human sewage, animal waste, pesticides, selenium, and heavy metals are the main pollutants Hydrological alterations • Deposition of fill material for development • Farming and development drainage • Increased impervious surface area in the watershed, thus increasing water and pollutant runoff into wetlands 4.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat The following rehabilitation guidelines will address disturbance to wetland habitat due to road construction, road and stream crossings as well as embankments that contribute to fragmentation of habitat, impeding and diverting flow, concentrating flow and increasing erosional pressure thus causing degradation. Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of disturbed habitat due to access road construction/roadworks causing erosion and sedimentation PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Collect and collate data pertaining to historical information of the wetland and the site location. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 46 as well as DWS DFFE Provincial Offices) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Employ aerial photographs and topographic maps of the wetland in order to diagnose the present state of the wetland affected. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Use drones (or other relevant/available sensors) and Geographic Information System (GIS) to determine spatial extent, density, pattern, and size of affected wetland. Step 2: Undertake WET-Health assessment to evaluate the overall health of the wetland and its habitat Step 3: Relevant specialists must be consulted to undertake ground truthing survey and to develop robust rehabilitation plans in accordance with the appropriate legislation Step 4: An Environmental Authorization (EA), General Authorization (GA) and Water Use License Application (WULA) must be lodged and approved prior to executing any rehabilitation interventions according to the following regulations: • The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations published under NEMA. • The applicable General Authorisations (GA) in terms of section 39 of NWA. • The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 (NEM:BA, hereafter referred to as Biodiversity Act). Step 5: Investigate use of constructed wetlands. Examples of these wetlands are as follows: o Free Water Surface (FWS) - systems mimic natural systems in the that water flows over the bed of the Wetlands as a shallow water pond and is filtered through the dense stand of aquatic plants; and o Subsurface Flow (SF) - systems promote water flow in a horizontal or vertical flow path through a shallow, permeable, media in which the plants are established. Treated effluent is collected in an underdrain for discharge. Step 6: Scientific buffers to be determined and implemented. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The common objectives are to improve the present ecological state of the wetland habit by addressing wetland rehabilitation due to roadworks to ensure it continues to deliver ecosystem services. PHASE 4: Execution • Reprofile and reshape the wetland areas on either side of the road to make them blend in longitudinally and perpendicularly with the surrounding wetland areas. • Distribute piled-up topsoil throughout the wetland. • Plant Species Plans must be compiled and implemented by a landscape architect or botanist. • Landscape/Watercourse Planning Management Plans must be compiled and implemented by relevant specialist. • Scientific buffer zones must be determined and implemented – when determining these buffer zones, the user must consult the Buffer Zone Guidelines (Buffer Zone DISTURBED WETLAND AREA REHABILITATION i.e disturbances due to filling, grading & removal of vegetation Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 47 Guidelines for Wetlands compiled by WRC, 2017) - guidelines provide guidance for activities planned around and adjacent to rivers, wetlands, and estuaries. • Buffer areas should be rehabilitated and stabilized before wetland areas as this will assist in the reduction of sediment and erosion to wetland habitat; • Deactivate desiccation drains within the buffers; • Remove sugarcane and invasive species from watercourse buffer zones; • To achieve a more natural topography, reframe and reprofile the buffer area; • Plant indigenous tufted graminoid species with a high basal cover in terrestrial buffer areas for the reduction of speed and runoff volume from hardened surfaces prior to it reaching wetland areas (this has to be supervised/overseen by a qualified rehabilitation specialist/landscaper. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring A suitable qualified specialist must monitor rehabilitated areas. Monitoring must be conducted periodically to assess the present ecological state of the wetland habitat. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes • Determine maintenance objectives Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 4.5 BIOTA 4.5.1 Description Biota/aquatic biota is described as the community of plants and animals with a biotic integrity, which reflects the health, community structure and distribution which is dependent on habitat (DWAF, 1999). A habitat is made of physical (abiotic) and living (biotic) factors. Abiotic factors are physical, non-living components that affect living organisms. Abiotic factors include: MAINTAINING WETLAND BUFFER AREA Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 48 • Light intensity; • Moisture (availability of water); • Humidity; • Salinity; • pH; and • Temperature Biotic factors are the living parts of the ecosystem with which an organism must interact. Biotic factors include: • Predators; • Prey; • Food sources; and • Parasites. 4.5.2 Types of Biota Impacts Human‐induced disturbance such as water abstraction and construction of barriers within in close proximity or upstream and downstream of wetlands alters the hydraulics and geomorphic characteristics of the wetland. These barriers also alter the flow velocities which cause changes in the physical habitats upon which biota depend. Below are examples of human induced disturbances on biota: • Water abstraction – flow impediment impact; • Dams and weirs – these structures have connectivity impacts on the physical habitat and biota and negative impact on the ecology of the wetland due to prevention of the migration of biota up and down the wetland. Additional to the above impacts, species composition interference due to alien biota introduction. Sand and gravel mining in close proximity to wetlands result in the alteration of flow of water and production of sediment within the wetlands. Various species such as shrimps are endangered. Other species are reported to be endangered due to poaching. 4.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota Scenario 1: Re-design and maintenance of improperly designed weirs to restore/improve flow characteristic/conditions of associated wetland. The presence of barriers such as dam walls and weirs placed across wetlands to control the flow of water for variety of reasons have negative impacts on wetlands. From a wetland rehabilitation point of view, weirs are constructed to flatten the slope of watercourses to enable a slower flow velocity and then have less erosion and sediment transport. Despite the potential benefits for construction of weirs, their incorrect design, construction, or placement may result in the smothering of downstream habitats and biota through the pulsed release (and increased overall) sediment loads as accumulated sediment from upstream of the weir structure is flushed downstream. Phase 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Determine the type of impacts (erosion, incision etc) within the wetland requiring intervention through the re-design and maintenance of weirs. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 49 Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipalities as well as DWS DFFE Provincial Offices) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Describe the specific details of the section within the wetland affected and provide a motivation for the re-design and maintenance of the weir Phase 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: A relevant qualified specialist must conduct a hydrological study to gather information pertaining to the path that water will take through a wetland, how deep it will flow over a structure like a weir and what force will be exerted on such a structure. Step 2: Based on the results obtained from the study conducted in Step 1 above, the type of weir to be re-designed and maintained must be selected and must be informed by the classification according to the structural elements used to provide stability to the structure, namely: • Gravity wall • Buttress weir • Arch weir • Sloping weir Step 3: A relevant qualified specialist i.e., Engineer and/or Aquatic Specialist must undertake a weir re-design process which amongst others must include the following: • Ecological and Engineering Studies. • Selection of the appropriate weir type. • Selection of a suitable location for the construction of the weir. • Analysis of the weir hydraulics. • Provision for maintenance of the weir. Step 4: The selected weir must be re-designed according to the approved engineering standards and must be informed by the selected designs, dimensions and all the results of analysis conducted in Step 3. Step 5: The Engineer must ensure that the construction material used for re-designing of the weir is suitable for the type of intervention in question. Weirs can be re-designed out of a variety of materials including rock filled gabions, reinforced concrete, mass concrete, and concrete plus blockwork. Step 6: The relevant qualified specialist i.e., Engineer and/or Aquatic Specialist responsible must ensure the dimensions of the selected type of weir mimic more natural outflow rates and flood peak sizes in order to protect the downstream environment. Step 7: Investigate use of constructed wetlands as part of rehabilitation or as additional measure to enhance ecological category. Phase 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The common objectives of rehabilitation of the wetlands through the construction of wetlands include the following: • Restoration of free‐flowing wetland conditions; • Reinstate migration routes for instream biota; • Restoration of more natural flows and sediment delivery to downstream reaches; and • Prevention of erosion headcuts and limitation of incisions within the wetland The above objectives for rehabilitation must be informed by the data collated in Phase 1 and 2. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 50 Phase 4: Execution The following are some of the common weir structures (Figure 19) available to be employed for restoring free-flowing wetland conditions. Note: • Structures such as dams, weirs and fishways were historically built without considering the migratory species functions. • It has become a worldwide phenomenon to demolish structures that form barriers for the improvement of environmental ecology, flow of water, sustainability, and landscape. • The removal of non-functioning structures acting as barriers to the flow of water, should be considered to form part and parcel of the available rehabilitation interventions based on the site-specific conditions. • The demolition of weirs should be only considered in cases where there are environmental problems experienced. In addition, historic dams and weirs do not cater for fishways and ecological flow releases; therefore, where there are impacts that cannot be mitigated, then one should consider the demolition of such structures. Phase 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Monitoring and Maintenance Monitoring • Weirs require regular maintenance and monitoring to remain in a good working condition and to ensure these structures work in harmony with the environment; • The re-designed weir must be monitored quarterly, before the rainy season and directly after a heavy rainfall event to ensure the crest of the weir is in good condition and free of obstructions. Furthermore, ensure that the weir remains in a safe working condition through Figure 19: Weir structures components available for wetland rehabilitation. •Shoulder walls -contain flow of water over the weir (protect the earth bank from being eroded by falling water •Cut-Off walls -retard or prevent the seepage of water under the foundation or adjoining earth fill Walls •An element of structure on which water falls in order to prevent erosion Apron slab •A series of pools used to enable biota to migrate up and down the watercourse for feeding, dispersal and reproduction Fish ladder Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 51 continuous monitoring during the implementation phase i.e., avoid slumping, cracking, or obvious changes to the crest of the wall; • Determine maintenance objectives. Maintenance • Maintenance activities include clearing debris from the crest, removing silt, from upstream of the weir, providing safety booms, and carrying out repairs to the structure are also critical; • Future maintenance of the upstream and downstream of the weir should also be considered in the implementation phase. • Activities such as clearing vegetation, cutting back overhanging trees, removal of silt and repairs to erosion protection may form part of the channel maintenance regime in the vicinity of the weir. Note: Weirs that incorporate a fish pass, regulating gates, and/or flow/level monitoring equipment are likely to require more maintenance than a standard weir structure. The specific requirements of any particular installation must be considered in the design process, and the design tailored to facilitate safe maintenance activities. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 52 5. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD The Wetland RMGs have been developed to address characteristics of watercourses, namely surface flow, groundwater flows, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota through a phased approach. In implementing these guidelines, the below is a summary of recommendations to users per characteristics of watercourses: Hydrology (surface flows and runoff) • Rehabilitation of impacts relating to flow regime such a surface flow and runoff must also include the reinstatement of flow drivers in the landscape. • Alien vegetation must be replaced with the correct indigenous vegetation. This is especially important when trees are removed, indigenous tree species must be brought in. Furthermore, alien management must be phased approached with both eradication (to manage re-growth) and indigenous revegetation (to ensure growth success). Revegetation and Re-planting Plans must be compiled and submitted to the DWS for approval. Geomorphology • Prior to implementing the revegetation plan, it is important to ensure that the affected area accumulates sufficient sediment deposition and thereafter reworked and sloped appropriately to promote vegetation growth and stabilisation; • Local indigenous grass seed mixture must be used to revegetate the area; • Determine and implement livestock management grazing carrying capacity plans. Water Quality • Rehabilitation activities relating to impacts on water quality must consider the priority areas which are sensitive and must be protected. These priority areas that must be protected are Strategic Water Source Areas, NFEPA and RAMSAR wetlands. Additionally, wetlands that form part of other international obligations such as the Agreement on the Conservation of African- Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA). • The DWS must ensure on-going monitoring of various wetland indicators such as water quality, biota, hydrology, and application of citizen science. • The DWS must implement and enforce polluter pays principles. • Consideration must be given to developing maintenance and upgrading plans for all malfunctioning WWTWs. • Scientific buffer zones – when determining these buffers zones the user must consult the Buffer Zone Guidelines - Buffer Zone Guidelines for Wetlands (WRC, 2017) - guidelines provide guidance for activities planned around and adjacent to rivers, wetlands, and estuaries. They are to be used and applied as part of a broader suite of tools to ensure that water resource management is appropriately integrated into development planning and land use management. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 53 Habitat and Biota • Scientific buffer zones must be determined, implemented, and continuously evaluated for success and effectiveness – when determining these buffers zones the user must consult the Buffer Zone Guidelines (WRC, 2017). • Desiccated and burning peatlands should be used to adjust Water Use Licenses in catchments. • Plant Species Plans must be compiled by a relevant specialist within the field. • Prioritize as per the guiding principles outlined in Figure 5. General • Constructed wetlands must be considered as part of rehabilitation options for all aspects of watercourses. • A Recommended Ecological Category (REC must be obtained). • Hydrological and ecological connectivity and ecological integrity must be enhanced by the rehabilitation efforts whether by flow driver or responses rehabilitation or both. • Compliance, monitoring, and enforcement must be strengthened in terms of human resources and capacity for all completed rehabilitation work to be undertaken. • Remote Sensing and GIS must be considered and employed instead of only relying on fixed- point photographs for monitoring aspects of rehabilitation work completed. • Existing DWS Data and information from the databases (i.e., Green drop) must be considered before exploring options of the monitoring and collecting data from new proposed sites. • Collaboration between the DWS, other government departments and private institutions is recommended to find the best way possible to assist each other in implementing rehabilitation. • Capacity building and funding must be linked to existing policy statements regarding departmental funding or charges. • Consideration must be given to translating the guidelines to be developed into Policy. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 54 REFERENCE LIST Adame, M.F., Roberts, M.E., Hamilton, D.P., Ndehedehe, C.E., Lu, J., Griffiths, M., Curwen, G and Ronan, M. 2019. Tropical coastal wetlands ameliorate nitrogen exports during floods. Frontiers in Marine Science. 6: 1-14. Brinson M.M. 1993. A hydro-geomorphic classification for wetlands. Wetland Research Programme Technical Report WRP-DE-4. Charlton R.O. 2008. Fundamentals of Fluvial Geomorphology. Routledge. Canada Chamber of Mines South Africa/Coaltech. 2007. Guidelines for the rehabilitation of mined land. CoM/Coaltech Report, November 2007. Chen, H., Zhang, W., Gao, H and Nie, N. 2018. Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts on Wetland and Agriculture in the Songnen and Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China. Remote Sensing, 10(3): 356–381. doi:10.3390/rs10030356 Collins, N.B. 2005. Wetlands: the basics and some more. Free State Department of Tourism, Environmental and Economic Affairs. Cowan, G.I. 1995. Wetlands of South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Dale, V.H., Brown, S., Haeuber, R., Hobbs, N.T., Huntly, N., Naiman R.J., Riebsame, W.E., Turner, M.Gz. and Valone, T.J. 2000. ‘Ecological principles & guidelines for managing use of land’, Ecological Application. 10(3): 639–670. Department of Environmental Affairs, Department of Mineral Resources, Chamber of Mines, South African Mining and Biodiversity Forum, and South African National Biodiversity Institute. 2013. Mining and Biodiversity Guideline: Mainstreaming biodiversity into the mining sector. Pretoria, South Africa. 100 pp. Doetterl, S., Van Oost, K. and Six, J. 2012. Towards constraining the magnitude of global agricultural sediment and soil organic carbon fluxes. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 37(6): 642– 655. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). 2008. Updated Manual for the Identification and Delineation of Wetlands and Riparian Areas, prepared by M. Rountree, A. L. Batchelor, J. MacKenzie and D. Hoare. Draft Report. Stream Flow Reduction Activities, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria, South Africa. Department of Water Affairs (DWA). 2014. Environmental Rehabilitation Policy. Directorate Water Abstraction and Instream Use, Sub- Directorate Environment and Rehabilitation. Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2013. National Water Resource Strategy - Edition 2, PRETORIA: Department of Water Affairs (DWA). Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2016. Integrated Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa: Integrated Water Quality Management Organisational Design Recommendations - Edition 1 (Report No. 4.4) (Water Resource Planning Systems Series No. 000/00/21715/21, PRETORIA: Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2017. Integrated Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa: Water Quality and Water Quality Management challenges in South Africa (Report No. 1.3) (Water Resource Planning Systems Series Report No. 000/00/21715/5, PRETORIA: Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 55 Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2018. Wetland Policy (Draft). Department of Water and Sanitation, Pretoria, South Africa. Dini, J. and Bahadur, U. 2016. South Africa’s National Wetland Rehabilitation Programme: Working for Wetlands Driver A., Sink, K.J., Nel, J.N., Holness, S., Van Niekerk, L., Daniels, F., Jonas, Z., Majiedt, P.A., Harris, L. & Maze, K. 2012. National Biodiversity Assessment 2011: An assessment of South Africa’s biodiversity and ecosystems. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria. Ewart-Smith, J.L., DJ Ollis, J.A. Day and H.L. Malan. 2006. National Wetland Inventory: development of a wetland classification system for South Africa. WRC Report No. KV 174/06. Freeman, N.M and Rowntree, K. 2005. Our Changing Rivers: An Introduction to the Science and Practice of Fluvial Geomorphology. WRC Report TT 238/05 Grenfell M.C., Ellery W.N., Garden S.E., Dini J. and Van Der Valk A.G. 2007. The language of intervention: A review of concepts and terminology in wetland ecosystem repair. Water SA 33 (1) 43-50. Joosten, H. & Clarke D. 2002. Wise use of mires and peatlands: Background and principles including a framework for decision-making. International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society, Jyväskylä. Joosten, H., Tapio-Bistr’m, M-L., and Tol, S. (eds) (2012). Peatlands – guidance for climate change mitigation through conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable use (Second edition). Published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Wetlands International Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture (MICCA) Programme. Keller, A., Adamaitis, C., Alessi on, P., Anderson, S., Got, E., Gray, S., Gurrola, L. and Morell, K. 2020. Application in Geomorphology. Mendeley. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.04.001 Kotze D.C. 1999. A system for supporting wetland management decisions. Ph.D. thesis. School of Applied Environmental Sciences, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. Mackintosh, T.J., Davis, J.A. and Thompson, R.M. 2017. The effects of urbanization on trophic relationships in constructed wetlands. Freshwater Science. 36(1): 138–150. Marneweck G.C and Batchelor A. L 2002. Wetland classification, mapping, and inventory. Marneweck, G.C, and Batchelor, A. 2002. Wetland inventory and classification. In: Ecological and Economic Evaluation of Wetlands in the Upper Olifants River Catchment, South Africa (eds Palmer, RW, Turpie, J and Marneweck, GC), Report No. 1162/1/02, Water Research Commission, Pretoria. Mao, D., Wang, Z., Li, L., Song, K and Jia, M. 2014. Quantitative assessment of human-induced impacts on marshes in northeast China from 2000 to 2011. Ecological Engineering. 68: 97–104 Meitzen, K.M., Doyle, M.W., Thoms, M.C., and Burns, C.E. 2013. Geomorphology within the interdisciplinary science of environmental flows. Geomorphology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.03.013 Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G. 1993. Wetlands, 2nd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley. National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP). 2018. Ready for the Future and Ahead of the Curve. Volume 1: Call to Action, Version 10.1. Department of Water and Sanitation, Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 56 Nel, J.L. and Driver A. 2012. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2011: Technical Report. Volume 2: Freshwater. Nel, J.L. & Driver, A. 2015. National River Ecosystem Accounts for South Africa. Discussion Document for Advancing SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting Project, October 2015. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. Ollis, D.J., Snaddon, C.D., Job, N.M. & Mbona, N. 2013. Classification system for wetlands and other aquatic ecosystems in South Africa. User Manual: inland systems. SANBI Biodiversity Series 22. South African National Biodiversity Institute. Pretoria. Ollis, D.J., Day, J.A., Mbona, N. & Dini, J.A. 2016. South African Wetlands: Classification of Ecosystem Types. The Wetland Book. Springer Science. Newton, A., Icely, J., Cristina, S., Perillo, G.M.E., Turner, R.E., Ashan, D., Cragg, S., Luo, Y., Tu, C., Li, Y., Zhang, H., Ramesh, R., Forbes, D.L., Solidoro, C., Béjaoui, B., Gao, S., Pastres, R., Kelsey, H., Taillie, D., Nhan, N., Brito, A.C., de Lima, R and Kuenzer, C. 2020. Anthropogenic, Direct Pressures on Coastal Wetlands. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 8:144. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2020.00144. Phethi, M.D and Gumbo, J.R. 2019. Assessment of impact of land use change on the wetland in Makhitha village, Limpopo province, South Africa. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies. 11 (2): 693 Rountree, M. W. And A. L. Batchelor. 2008. A classification system for wetland management in South Africa. Russel WB. 2009. WET-RehabMethods: National Guidelines and Methods for wetland rehabilitation. Technical report no. TT 341/09. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa. Sieben, E. J. J., Mtshali, H. and Janks, M. 2014. National Wetland Vegetation Database: Classification and analysis of wetland vegetation types for conservation planning and monitoring. Water Research Commission. South African National Biodiversity Institution (SANBI). 2013. Ecological infrastructure – Nature delivering services. SANBI Factsheet. August 2013. South African National Biodiversity Institution (SANBI). 2014. South Africa’s 5 th National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2019. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. pp. 1–214. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2023. Setting realistic restoration goals: A guide for wetland restoration practitioners in South Africa. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. Tooth, S., Ellery, F., Grenfell, M., Thomas, A., Kotze, D., and Ralph, T. 2015. 10 reasons why the Geomorphology of Wetlands is important. http://wetlandsindrylands.net/wp- content/uploads/2015/10/10-Reasons-Geomorphology-of-Wetlands-NEAR-FINAL-PRINTER- FRIENDLY.pdf Turpie, J., Day, E., Ross-Gillespie, V and Louw, A. 2010. Estimation of the Water Quality Amelioration Value of Wetlands: A case study of the Western Cape, South Africa. Environment for Development Initiative. 1-21 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). 2020. About the Convention. https://www.unccd.int/convention/about-convention. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 57 UNEP. 2016. A snapshot of the world’s water quality: towards a global assessment. Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2020. What is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change? https://unfccc.int/process-and- meetings/the-convention/what-is-the-united-nations-framework-convention-on-climate- change Upadhyay, A.K., Singh, R and Singh, D.P. 2020. Restoration of Wetland Ecosystem: A Trajectory Towards a Sustainable Environment – Wetland as a Sustainable Reservoir of Ecosystem Services: Prospects of Threat and Conservation. (Chapter 3), 31–43. doi:10.1007/978-981-13- 7665-8_3 Van Deventer, H., Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J., Dinala, M.K., Gangat, R., Lamberth, S.J., LÖtter, M., Mbona, N., MacKay, F., Nel, J.L., Ramjukadh, C.L., Skowno, A. and Weerts, S.P. 2020. National Wetland Map 5: An improved spatial extent and representation of inland aquatic and estuarine ecosystems in South Africa. Water SA (1) 66-79. Water Research Commission (WRC). 2007. Wet-Road Map – A Guide to the Wetland Management Series. Water Research Commission (Report No: TT 321/07) Water Research Commission (WRC). 2008. WET- EcoServices – A Technique for Rapidly Assessing Ecosystem Services Support by Wetlands. Water Research Commission Project (Report No: TT 339/08). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2008. WET- Origins – Controls on the distribution and dynamics of wetlands in South Africa. Water Research Commission Project (Report No: TT 334/08). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2016. Wetland Rehabilitation in Mining Landscapes: An Introductory Guide. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No. TT 658/16). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2016. Wetland Offsets: A Best Practice Guideline for South Africa. Water Research Commission Project (Report No: TT 660/16) Water Research Commission (WRC). 2017. Buffer Zone Guidelines for Rivers, Wetlands and Estuaries. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No. 2461/1/18) Water Research Commission (WRC). 2019. Developing wetland distribution and transfer functions from land type data as a basis for the critical evaluation of wetland delineation guidelines by inclusion of soil water flow dynamics in catchment areas. Volume 1: Improving the Management of Wetlands by Including Hydropedology and Land Type Data at Catchment Level. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No. TT 715-1-17). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2021. WET- EcoServices (Version 2) – A Technique for Rapidly Assessing Ecosystem Services Supplied by Wetlands and Riparian Areas. Water Research Commission Project (Report No: TT 2737/1/21). Wyatt, J. 1997. Wetland Fix: Introduction and Wetland Assessment compiled for Mondi Wetlands Project, Second Edition. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 58 APPENDICES APPENDIX A Rehabilitation Restoration Re-creation/Re-establishment • Rehabilitation refers to measures taken in the process of returning impacted areas to a condition ecologically similar to their ‘pre-mining natural state’ or an agreed land use after mine closure (DEA et al., 2013) o Rehabilitation involves the manipulation of the physical (e.g. blocking drainage canals), chemical, or biological characteristics (e.g. assisting the regeneration of the natural vegetation and/ or clearing of invasive alien species on the wetland site or in its buffer zone) of a degraded wetland system in order to repair or improve wetland integrity and associated ecosystem services (SANBI and DWS, 2014). o Rehabilitation is a limited process that almost always falls short of replicating the full diversity and complexity of a natural system (DEA et al., 2013). o Rehabilitation does however help to restore some resemblance of ecological functioning in an impacted landscape, to avoid on-going negative impacts, and/or to provide some sort of aesthetic fix for a landscape (DEA et al., 2013). • Wetland rehabilitation refers to the process of assisting recovery of a degraded wetland in terms of the wetland condition, function, and associated biodiversity, or in maintaining the health of a wetland that is threatened by degradation, through the implementation of remedial interventions or proactive preventative measures (Russel, 2009, SANBI and DWS, 2014). • This points to differences in the terms of rehabilitation and restoration, which speak to differences in the intent of the remedial activity and in the condition of the wetland prior to the commencement of the remedial activity. • Wetland rehabilitation in contrast refers to remedial activity applied to systems that have been degraded and have lost some degree of ecosystem structure and/or function but which have not been permanently altered (Grenfell et al., 2007) • Restoration is defined as remedial activity applied to systems that have been completely and permanently, but not irreparably, altered (Grenfell et al., 2007) • Wetland restoration would therefore generally require more resources and a greater level of intervention effort than wetland rehabilitation and in many cases may be impossible, unrealistic or too expensive. While there are subtle differences in the definitions of these terms, the term ‘rehabilitation’ as used in this document encompasses both of these activities. • Wetland re-creation in this context involves creating/establishing wetlands where they did not occur previously. Re-establishment refers to where wetlands that were removed or lost by mining are re-established within the post mining or mining rehabilitation footprint. --- Document Separator --- Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 ii Published by The Department of Water and Sanitation Private Bag X313 Pretoria, 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: (012) 336 7500/ +27 12 336 7500 Fax: (012) 336 6731/ +27 12 336 6731 Copyright Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner without full acknowledgment of the source. This report should be cited as: Department of Water and Sanitation. 2025. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries. Report 2.3. Sources Directed Studies. Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322. Pretoria, South Africa Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 iii DOCUMENT INDEX REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR WATER RESOURCES REPORT SERIES REPORT TITLE DWS REPORT NUMBER 1. Project Planning Reports 1.1 Project Plan RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0120 1.2 Gap Analysis Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0220 1.3 Framework Document RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDC/0121 1.4 ToR for PSC members RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0221 1.5 Inception Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0321 1.6 Situation Assessment Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 2. Development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines 2.1 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 2.2 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0222 2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 2.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater Resources RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 2.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0123 3. Implementation Report 3.1 Guidelines into Practice RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0423 4. Project Administration Reports 4.1 Project Close-out Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 4.1.1 Capacity Building 4.1.2 Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 iv DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL Authors: Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane, Dr Mampolelo Photolo, Ms Mmaphefo Thwala, Mr Samkele Mnyango, Mr Sibusiso Majola, Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Contributors: Mr Karl Bester, Mr Kelvin Legge, Mr Miyelani Maluleke, Mr Mbulelo Dopolo Ms Yolokazi Galada, Mr Ruwen Pillay, Ms Yvonne Mokadi Specialist Reviewers: Dr Gerhard Cilliers and Ms Caren George Project Name: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 Report version: Version 2.7 Date: August 2025 Department of Water and Sanitation Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Compiled by: ..................................................... Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane (Project Manager) Approved for DWS by: .................................................... Director: Sources Directed Studies Ms Tovhowani Nyamande (Project Leader) .................................................... Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Ms Ndileka Mohapi Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DWS Project Administration Committee (PAC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager DWS Sub-Technical Task Team (Sub-TT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member DWS Technical Task Team (TTT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 vi Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Resource Regulation Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member DWS Project Management Committee (PMC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Project Leader (Chairperson) Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 vii Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination-Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In-Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 viii Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Project Steering Committee Members (PSC) DWS Representatives Ms Mohapi Ndileka Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Chairperson Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination-Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 ix Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In-Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Thembisa Torch Assistant Director: DWS: Berg-Olifants Proto-CMA Member Ms Lebogang Matlala Director: DWS Water Resource Classification Member Ms Anet Muir Chief Director: Water Use Compliance & Enforcement Member Ms Barbara Weston Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Yakeen Atwaru Director: Reserve Determination Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Water Sector Representatives Dr Andrew Wood Principal Scientist: SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd Member Mr Lehlohonolo Phadima General Manager: Scientific Services: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Dr Eddie Riddell Water Resources Manager: South African National Parks Member Mr Ntsikelelo Wiseman Dlulane Acting Chief Executive Officer: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 x Mr Phil McLean Task Manager: Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Pollution and Chemicals Directorate Member Mr Stanley Tshitwamulomoni Director: Water Sources and Wetlands Conservation: DFFE Member Dr Dhiraj Rama Executive Director: Association of Cementitious Material Producers (ACMP) Member Mr Kobus Fell Advisor: National Water Monitor Non-Profit Company Member Mr Donovan Gillman President: Institute for Landscape Architecture in South Africa Member Mr Reginald Mabalane Policy Analyst: Mineral Council of South Africa Member Ms Busisiwe Mahlangu Control Environmental Officer: Inkomati-Usuthu Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Sihle Ximba Acting Water Care Manager: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Bonani Madikizela Research Manager: Water Research Commission Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Hermien Oberholzer Senior Principal Engineer: Anglo American Platinum Member Ms Stephinah Mudau Head Environment: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Mr Matome Makwela Senior Policy Analyst: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Ms Jenifer Zungu Project Leader: South African National Biodiversity Institute Member Mr Douglas Macfarlane Chief Scientist: Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services Member Mr Andre Beegte Implementation Manager – Wetlands: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Debbie Muir Biodiversity Officer Control: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Kate Snaddon Senior Consultant: Freshwater Consulting Member Dr Yolandi Schoeman Postdoctoral Scientist and Ecological Engineer: University of the Free State Member Dr Chantel Petersen Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Dr Vhahangwele Masindi Research and Development Manager: Magalies Water Member Ms Kim Hodgson Scientist – Water Quality Management: Umgeni Water Member Ms Lilian Siwelane Control Environmental Officer: DWS: North-West, Institutional Management Member Mr Mashudu Rafundisani Senior Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Mpho Zwane Senior Specialist - Water Quality Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Esmeralda Ramburran Deputy Director - Operational Support and Planning: Department of Forestry Fisheries and the Environment Member Mr Norman Nokeri Manager - Strategy and Planning: Lepelle Northern Water Member Mr Pule Makena Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Member Mr Reveck Hariram Senior Water Quality Advisor: Rand Water Member Mr Theolin Naidoo Senior Scientist: Institute of Natural Resources NPC Member Mr Wiseman Ndlala Senior Specialist - Water Quality and Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xi Mr Roger Bills Senior Curator: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) Member Mr Fazel Sheriff Chief Engineer: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Mr Themba Dladla Provincial Programme Manager: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Dr Kobus Du Plessis Managing Director: Envirokonsult Scientific Services (Pty) Ltd Member Ms Mulalo Sundani Environmental Impact Management: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) Member Dr Elizabeth Day Director: Liz Day Consulting (Pty) Ltd Member Dr Heidi van Deventer Principal Researcher: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Member Mr Lubabalo Luyaba Specialist – Water and Sanitation: South African Local Government Association Member Mr Vhangani Silima Coordinator Environmental Rehabilitation: Rand Water Member Ms Phumelele Sokhulu Environmental Officer: Umgeni Member Mr Robert Siebritz Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Mr Eddy Tshabalala Control Environmental Officer: Sedibeng District Municipality Member Mr Rodney February MEL Coordinator: World Wide Fund for Nature Member Mr Ruwen Pillay Control Environmental Officer: Estuaries Management: DFFE Member Ms Yolokazi Galada Control Environmental Officer: DFFE Member Mr Stephen Midzi Manager: Biodiversity Conservation SANParks Member Dr Thakane Ntholi Manager: Water and Environment: Council for Geoscience Member Specialist Reviewers Dr Gerhard Cilliers Director: DFFE Ms Caren George Control Environmental Officer - Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning Western Cape Government Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xii LIST OF ACRONYMS CARA CD: WEM CECs CMA CMP CSIR DALRRD DCOGTA DEA&DP DFFE EBVs ECA EFZ EPA EMFIS EMPs EWR e-WULAAS SDS DEDEAT DWAF DWS EIA GA GBF GIS HDPE HWM IPCC IWQM IWRM KZNEDTEA MAR MMP MaintMP Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Contaminants of Emerging Concern Catchment Management Agency Coastal Management Programme Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment Essential Biodiversity Variables Environment Conservation Act Estuary Functional Zone Estuarine Protected Areas Estuarine Management Framework and Implementation Strategy Estuarine Management Plans Ecological Water Requirements Electronic Water Use Licence Application and Authorisation System Directorate: Sources Directed Studies Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Department of Water and Sanitation Environmental impact Assessment General Authorisation Global Biodiversity Framework Geographic Information System High-density Polyethylene High-Water Mark Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Integrated Water Quality Management Integrated Water Resource Management Kwazulu-Natal Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs Mean Annual Rainfall Mouth Management Plan Maintenance Management Plan MPRDA NBA Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act National Biodiversity Assessment NEMA NEM: BA NEM: WA NEM: PAA NFA NGOs National Environmental Management Act National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act National Environmental Management: Waste Act National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act National Forests Act Non-Governmental Organisations NHRA NOAA National Heritage Resources Act National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration NWA National Water Act NWRS National Water Resource Strategy NW&SMP PAHs RQOs National Water and Sanitation Master Plan Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Resource Quality Objectives RDM Resource Directed Measures Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xiii RWQOs SAMSA SANBI SANRAL SFR Resource Water Quality Objectives South African Maritime Safety Association South African National Biodiversity Institute South African National Road Agency SOC Ltd Stream flow reduction SDCs WARMS WSA WCG WCTDP WML WRC WULA WUL Sources Directed Controls Water use Authorization and Registration Management System Water Services Authorities Western Cape Government Wild Coast Tourism Development Policy Waste Management License Water Research Commission Water Use License Application Water Use License WWTW Wastewater Treatment Works Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xiv GLOSSARY OF TERMS Estuaries in terms of the definition from the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) an estuary means a partially or fully enclosed body of water – • which is open to the sea permanently or periodically; and • within which sea water can be diluted, to measurable extent, with fresh water drained from land. Diffuse pollution - (“non-point source pollution”) - pollution that originates from wash-off over a relatively large area. Diffuse pollution sources can be divided into source activities related to either land or water use, including failing septic tanks, agricultural and improper animal-keeping practices, and urban and rural runoff. Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) - the flow patterns (magnitude, timing, and duration) and water quality needed to maintain a riverine ecosystem in a particular condition. This term is used to refer to both the quantity and quality components. Effluent is the municipal sewage or industrial wastewater (untreated, partially treated, or fully treated) that flows out of a wastewater treatment works, septic system, pipe, etc. The Estuary Functional Zone (EFZ) is an area that not only covers the estuary water body but also areas that support physical and biological processes and habitats necessary for estuarine function and condition. The latter includes areas influenced by long-term estuarine sedimentary processes (i.e., sediment stored or eroded during floods), changes in channel configuration, aeolian transport processes, and changes due to coastal storms. The EFZ also encompasses floodplain ecotones and estuarine vegetation (salt marshes, mangroves etc.) that contribute detritus to the base of the estuarine food chain and provides refuge to estuarine biota during high flow events from strong currents. Eutrophication - (from the Greek “eutrophos” meaning "well-nourished") Is the process of over-enrichment of waterbodies with minerals and nutrients, which (at the right temperatures, substrate availability, flow velocity and light penetration) increasingly induce primary production, e.g., algal and macrophyte growth. Eutrophication can be regarded as either a natural aging process in waterbodies or an aging process that can be accelerated by anthropogenic activities. Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets (i.e., GBF Goal A target 2 for restoration of ecosystems). Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. IWRM takes into account the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. Mean annual runoff - the average volume of water that flows in a river per year (annum), expressed as cubic meters per annum. Monitoring - periodic or continuous surveillance or testing to determine the level of compliance with statutory requirements and/or pollutant levels in various media or in humans, plants, and animals. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xv Non-point source pollution - see “Diffuse pollution.” Point source pollution - pollutant loads discharged at a specific location by means of pipes, outfalls, or conveyance channels inter alia delivering wastewater from municipal and industrial Wastewater Treatment Works. Point sources can also include pollutant loads contributed by tributary. Rehabilitation is the process of promoting the recovery of ecosystem services and values in a transformed/degraded system in order to reclaim part of the system's lost societal value (Hay and McKenzie, 2005). The benefit of ensuring that ecosystems are in good ecological condition secures ecosystem services and maintain resilience against climate change impacts. Resources Directed Measures (RDM) focus on the quantity and quality of the water resource itself, regarding it as an ecosystem rather than a commodity. RDMs comprise Classes, Reserve and RQOs as components. Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) are a numerical or descriptive (narrative) statement of the conditions which should be met in the receiving water resource, in terms of resource quality, in order to ensure that the water resource is protected. They might describe, amongst others, the quantity, pattern, and timing of instream flow; water quality; the character and condition of riparian habitat, and the characteristics and condition of the aquatic biota. Runoff is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. Surface runoff replenishes groundwater and surface water resources as it percolates through soil profiles or moves into streams and rivers. Social-Ecological System (SES) are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). Source - in water resource management, “source” refers to the source of an impact, usually on a water resource. The relationship between “Source” and “Resource” is similar to the relationships between “Cause” and “Effect” or “Aspect” and “Impact,” as per the ISO 14001 definitions. The “Resource” or the “water resource” is part of the receiving environment Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. Wastewater is any water used from domestic, industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, which may contain physical, chemical, and biological pollutants. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xvi CONTENTS DOCUMENT INDEX ..........................................................................................................................................III DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL .......................................................................................................................... IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... V LIST OF ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... XII GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................................................... XIV CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................... XVI LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................................... XVII LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................... XVIII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. XIX 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE REPORT ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 ESTUARY DEFINITION, CATEGORISATION, AND IMPACTS .......................................................................... 2 1.3.1 Definition of Estuaries................................................................................................................................... 2 1.3.2 Estuarine Categorisation System and Characteristics ................................................................................... 2 1.3.3 Estuarine Key Indicators and Components ................................................................................................... 4 1.3.4 Link between water resources and key components of estuaries ................................................................ 5 1.3.5 Estuarine Ecosystem Services and Impacts ................................................................................................... 6 Estuarine Impacts ....................................................................................................................................................... 8 1.4 ESTUARINE REHABILITATION DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................... 9 1.5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE .................................................... 9 GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................................................................ 9 1.5.1 Estuarine Rehabilitation Guiding Principles ................................................................................................... 9 1.5.2 Approach ..................................................................................................................................................... 10 1.6 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES ...................................................................................................... 11 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES ......................................................................................................... 11 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................................................. 11 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................... 11 2.2 LEGAL CONSIDERATION SPECIFIC TO ESTUARIES REHABILITATION ...................................................................... 12 2.3 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PRINCIPLES ................................................................ 17 3. GUIDELINES FOR KEY COMPONENTS OF ESTUARIES .............................................................................. 18 3.1 HYDROLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 18 3.1.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 18 3.1.2 Types of Impact ........................................................................................................................................... 18 3.1.2.1 Dam Construction and Weirs .................................................................................................................. 18 3.1.2.2 Urbanisation and poor land use .............................................................................................................. 19 3.1.2.3 Over-abstraction..................................................................................................................................... 19 3.1.2.4 Bridges ................................................................................................................................................... 19 3.1.2.5 Jetties & Piers ......................................................................................................................................... 20 3.1.2.6 Slipways/Launching Ramps .................................................................................................................... 20 3.1.2.7 Stormwater discharge structures ............................................................................................................ 21 3.1.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Hydrology (Surface flow, runoff, and baseflow) ...................... 22 3.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 26 3.2.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 26 3.2.2 Sources and Types of Impacts ..................................................................................................................... 27 3.2.2.1 Dredging and dredging material disposal ............................................................................................... 27 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xvii 3.2.2.2 Human-induced sedimentation .............................................................................................................. 27 3.2.2.3 Sand mining ............................................................................................................................................ 27 3.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology ...................................................................... 27 3.3 WATER QUALITY .................................................................................................................................. 34 3.3.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 34 3.3.2 Types of Water Quality Impacts .................................................................................................................. 34 3.3.2.1 WWTW discharges ................................................................................................................................. 34 3.3.2.2 Effluent discharge from industries, surface, and agricultural and stormwater runoff ............................. 35 3.3.2.3 Climate Change Effects ........................................................................................................................... 35 3.3.2.4 Deforestation.......................................................................................................................................... 36 3.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality .......................................................................... 36 3.4 HABITAT .............................................................................................................................................. 38 3.4.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 38 3.4.2 Types of Habitat Impact .............................................................................................................................. 39 3.4.2.1 Habitat removal and alteration .............................................................................................................. 39 3.4.2.2 Alien Invasive Species ............................................................................................................................. 39 3.4.2.3 Sand mining ............................................................................................................................................ 39 3.4.2.4 Dredging activities .................................................................................................................................. 39 3.4.2.5 Climate change ....................................................................................................................................... 40 3.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat .................................................................................... 40 3.5 BIOTA .................................................................................................................................................. 47 3.5.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 47 3.5.2 Types of Biota Impacts ................................................................................................................................ 47 3.5.2.1 Over-exploitation / Overfishing ............................................................................................................... 47 3.5.2.2 Plastic Waste .......................................................................................................................................... 47 3.5.2.3 Artificial Breaching / Mouth manipulations ............................................................................................ 48 3.5.2.4 Sand mining ............................................................................................................................................ 48 3.5.2.5 Pollution Impacts .................................................................................................................................... 48 3.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota ........................................................................................ 48 4. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD.............................................................................................. 53 REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 55 APPENDICES................................................................................................................................................... 59 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of Southern Africa showing the four estuarine biogeographical regions ..................... 3 Figure 2: Revised categorisation of South African coastal rivers/streams into estuarine functional types and micro-systems ....................................................................................................................... 3 Figure 3: Illustration of the structure of the Estuarine Health Index ................................................... 4 Figure 4: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and key components of estuaries. .. 5 Figure 6: Illustration of some of the key catchment pressures on estuaries ....................................... 8 Figure 7: The Coastal Zone of South Africa ......................................................................................... 13 Figure 8: Examples of vegetation coastal rehabilitation .................................................................... 31 Figure 9: Illustration of regrading of the bank and planting out with suitable indigenous species .. 31 Figure 10: Regrading of the bank with a timber wall at the downslope end ..................................... 32 Figure 11: Regrading of the bank with a rock filled mesh sack berm at the downslope end Source: DEA&DP, 2021....................................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 12: Geo cells vegetated with appropriate indigenous species ................................................ 32 Figure 13: Example of geotextile. ........................................................................................................ 33 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xviii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Estuarine Ecosystem Services .................................................................................................. 6 Table 2: Approach to be followed for the development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Estuaries .............................................................................................................................................................. 10 Table 3: Legislative Tools Applicable for Estuarine Rehabilitation..................................................... 14 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Approximately 290 estuaries and 42 micro-estuaries, totally 332 in South Africa are categorized into 22 estuarine ecosystem types, collectively covering an area of 90 000 ha including the open water area and adjacent habitats such as salt marshes and mangroves (Van Niekerk et al., 2019). The estuarine realm is the most threatened of all realms in South Africa, both for the number of ecosystem types (86% threatened) and for the area (99% threatened). Ten percent (10%) of estuary types are Critically Endangered, 45% are Endangered and 32% are Vulnerable. By area, 77% are either Critically Endangered or Endangered (SANBI, 2019). The impacts on estuaries are attributed to both direct and indirect anthropogenic (human) activities. Direct anthropogenic impacts are related to hydrological - flow modification patterns due to weirs, dams, and over abstractions; alteration such as canalisation, riparian infrastructure, infilling; over-exploitation of fish and invertebrates; pollution from Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs) and other sources within the catchment; and manipulation of estuary mouths. Indirect pressures largely relate to biological invasions by plants and fish. To address the impacts on South African estuarine systems, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) in the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) initiated a project in 2020 for the development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Resources, including estuaries. The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM) to conduct sources-directed studies to ensure water resource protection. The project aims to address the lack of integration of work across various projects, programmes, and initiatives due to separate mandates and various institutions responsible for the rehabilitation of estuaries. In addition, interventions in these ecosystems need to be reported to Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) and will require guidance on reporting and integrating these across departments and sectors. It is for this reason that the DWS is developing Estuarine Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) to address characteristics of watercourses, namely hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota through a phased approach, namely; diagnostic, planning and assessment, setting of the rehabilitation objectives, execution, and monitoring phases. The following are key aspects covered to address the shortcomings of each characteristic of watercourses: • Description of the type and characteristics of watercourses; • Types of pressures and their impacts for each characteristic of the watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that give rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of the watercourse; and • Step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. Human‐induced disturbance such as in-stream infrastructure including dams and weirs within and close to estuaries are the main impacts that alters the hydrology of the estuarine ecosystem. Human- induced disturbances such as the abstraction of water from rivers result in flow impediment impact and changes in flow drivers and hydrodynamics, which have a direct impact on the habitat and biota of estuarine systems. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) for hydrology have been Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 xx developed with a focus on control and management of over-abstraction and artificial mouth breaching activities. Dredging in estuarine systems causes mechanical damage, results in the smothering of organisms in the sediments; elevated turbidity levels, which reduces light penetration in the water environment, adversely affecting the phytoplankton and aquatic vegetation. Poor catchment land-use practices lead to more sediment, especially finer fractions, entering the system. Sand mining activities also alter the flow in estuaries and their sediment budget to the coast, which causes changes in the habitats upon which biota depend. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for geomorphology with a focus on rehabilitation relating to sand mining, road construction, and dredging (sand) as well as management of bank erosion have been developed. Water quality within estuarine systems is affected by sources of pollution emanating mainly from industries and WWTWs. Human-induced climate change alters temperature and salinity regimes and the structure and function of biotic communities in estuaries. Deforestation, and clearing of land activities are other impacts that affect estuaries. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed to address effluent and discharge from WWTWs and industries. Estuaries are particularly susceptible to habitat transformation, removal and/or alterations caused by human activities. In addition, the construction of permanent structures on the waterfront, recreational and commercial use which changes bottom habitats due to boat engine props scarring seagrass beds and shellfish dredging of bay bottoms, has consequences. Imported organisms that invade the water body can also have a major impact on the ecosystem i.e., invasive species pose a risk to the stability and biodiversity of an estuarine ecosystem. Therefore, the RMGs have been developed for habitat with a focus on the control and management of Alien Invasive Species; and control of habitat removal/alteration caused by human activities (i.e., protection of mangroves). In terms of Biota, overfishing, sand mining, and dredging have significant physical, chemical, and biological impacts on estuaries. Estuaries are also degraded through mismanagement and physical interference such as inappropriate artificial breaching and mouth manipulation. Thus, the RMGs have been developed to provide guidance in terms of estuary zonation and estuary mouth breaching. Most importantly, users of the RMGs should recognise the interaction and interrelationship between cumulative impacts at specific sites also considering site specific existing Estuary Management Plans (EMP) and their recommendations. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND South Africa has 290 estuaries and 42 micro-estuaries, totally 332 estuaries categorised into 22 estuarine ecosystem types, collectively covering an area of 90 000 ha including the open water area, sand and mudbanks, and blue carbon habitats including salt marshes, seagrasses, and mangroves with supportive freshwater ecosystems along the edges (Van Niekerk et al., 2019). The estuarine realm is the most threatened of all realms in South Africa, both for the number of ecosystem types (86% threatened) and for the area (99% threatened). Ten percent (10%) of estuary types are Critically Endangered, 45% are Endangered and 32% are Vulnerable. By area, 77% are either Critically Endangered or Endangered (SANBI, 2019). To address the impacts on South African estuarine systems, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) in the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) initiated a project for the development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) for Water Resources (i.e., estuaries). The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM) to conduct sources-directed studies to ensure water resource protection. In the Situation Assessment Phase of the project, it was found that a great deal of research has been conducted in South Africa to understand the discipline of estuarine management to provide local and site-specific management interventions. Extensive studies have been undertaken by the DWS, Water Research Commission (WRC), Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment (DFFE), Cape Nature, and various Provincial Departments of Environmental Affairs. For instance, the Western Cape Government (WCG), the Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (DEA&DP) commissioned the development of the Estuarine Management Framework and Implementation Strategy (EMFIS) that prioritise the development of Estuarine Management Plans (EMPs) as well as the development of other tools, e.g. Mouth Management Plans (MMPs), guidelines dealing with activities within estuaries, and draft by-laws for the effective management of estuaries as per Priority Area 7 of the Western Cape Provincial Coastal Management Programme. To coordinate management actions, the Integrated Coastal Management Act (Act No. 24 of 2008), prescribes that EMPs be compiled for all estuaries in accordance with guidelines found in the National Estuarine Management breaching. Numerous EMPs have been developed and compiled by the relevant environmental departments such as DFFE, WCG DEA&DP, Kwazulu-Natal Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs (KZNEDTEA) for better management of the whole estuarine functional zone, the adjacent shoreline, and freshwater ecosystems (including rivers and inland wetlands) upstream of the estuaries. Several programmes and initiatives such as the Land and Coast Care Management Programme, Coastal Management Programme (CMP), have been implemented to ensure the mitigation of pressures on estuaries and ensure their resilience. Although a multitude of the EMPs and programmes have been developed and implemented, the Situation Assessment Phase identified a gap in terms of the lack of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Estuaries and the need for integration of existing EMPs with other related projects, programmes and initiatives. 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE REPORT The primary objective of the report is to: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 2 • Develop Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for estuaries in terms of their interactions with characteristics of watercourses, namely; hydrology (surface flow and interflow), groundwater flows geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota. 1.3 ESTUARY DEFINITION, CATEGORISATION, AND IMPACTS 1.3.1 Definition of Estuaries In terms of the definition from the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) an estuary means a partially or fully enclosed body of water – • which is open to the sea permanently or periodically; and • within which sea water can be diluted, to measurable extent, with fresh water drained from land. In terms of the definition from Integrated Coastal Management Act (ICMA), 2008 (Act 24 of 2008) "estuary" means a body of surface water – • that is part of a water course that is permanently or periodically open to the sea; • in which a rise and fall of the water level as a result of the tides is measurable at spring tides when the water course is open to the sea; or • in respect of which the salinity is measurably higher as a result of the influence of the sea. Van Niekerk et al., (2019) further defined an estuary as a partially enclosed permanent water body, either continuously or periodically open to the sea on decadal time scales, extending as far as the upper limit of tidal action, salinity penetration or back-flooding under closed mouth conditions. During floods, an estuary can become a river mouth with no seawater entering the formerly estuarine area or, when there is little or no fluvial input, an estuary can be isolated from the sea by a sandbar and become either fresh or even hypersaline. A defining feature of this definition is that complex estuarine abiotic processes distinguish estuaries from other aquatic ecosystem types i.e., restricted tidal action, mixing of fresh and salt water, increased retention, and/or increased water levels under closed mouth conditions. 1.3.2 Estuarine Categorisation System and Characteristics Biogeographical regions South Africa has 290 estuaries EFZs and 42 micro-estuaries, which have been categorized into 22 estuarine ecosystems and 3 micro-estuary types (Van Niekerk et. al., 2018). The South African coastline is subdivided into 4 estuarine bio-geographical zones according to the National Biodiversity Assessment (Van Niekerk, 2019) (Figure 1). The Tropical extends from Kosi Bay Estuary to uMgobezeleni Estuary in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, the Subtropical from St. Lucia Estuary to Mbashe Estuary, the Warm Temperate Zone is from the Mendwana Estuary to Heuningnes Estuary near Cape Agulhas, and the Cool Temperate Zone from Ratel Estuary and ends at the Orange River mouth in the Northern Cape Province. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 3 Figure 1: Map of Southern Africa showing the four estuarine biogeographical regions Source: Van Niekerk et. al., 2019 Estuarine functional types South African estuaries were previously categorised into five categories (Whitfield, 1992) and have been further refined into nine categories (Van Niekerk, 2019), namely Estuarine Lake, Estuarine Bay, Estuarine Lagoon, Predominantly Open, Large and Small Temporarily Closed, Large and Small Fluvially Dominated, and Arid Predominantly Closed. Individual systems may change from one type to another under the influence of natural events or anthropogenic influences. Figure 2 below is an illustration of the revised categorisation of South African coastal rivers/streams into estuarine functional types and micro-systems. Figure 2: Revised categorisation of South African coastal rivers/streams into estuarine functional types and micro-systems Source: Van Niekerk et al., 2020 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 4 Estuary Functional Zone (EFZ) The Estuary Functional Zone (EFZ) is defined as the area that not only covers the estuary water body but also areas that support physical and biological processes and habitats necessary for estuarine function and condition. The latter includes areas influenced by long-term estuarine sedimentary processes (i.e., sediment stored or eroded during floods), changes in channel configuration, aeolian transport processes, and changes due to coastal storms. The EFZ also encompasses flood plain ecotones and estuarine vegetation that contribute detritus to the base of the estuarine food chain and provide refuge to estuarine biota during high flow events from strong currents (Van Niekerk et al., 2020). 1.3.3 Estuarine Key Indicators and Components DWAF (2008) and Turpie et al., (2012) agreed on four abiotic and five biotic Estuarine Ecosystem Condition Indicators for inclusion in the Estuarine Health Index to evaluate the change in estuary productivity and condition (Figure 3). The index includes both abiotic and biotic condition indicators (also called components) as the inter-relationships between these indicators are often not well defined, and also because biotic responses often lag abiotic responses. Abiotic responses can offer an early warning of condition change (Whitfield et al., 2008; Van Niekerk et al., 2013). Figure 3: Illustration of the structure of the Estuarine Health Index Sources: DWAF 2008; Turpie et al.,2012 A core set of priority estuaries in need of protection to achieve biodiversity targets has been defined in the National Estuaries Biodiversity Plan and the National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) 2018. In the NBA 2011 (Van Niekerk and Turpie, 2012), estuary biodiversity targets are defined in terms of achieving representation of ecosystem types, habitats, and species, as well as meeting population targets that ensure their viability. The overall target was to protect a minimum of 20% of the total estuarine area. Targets for ecosystem types are sometimes used as a surrogate for biodiversity for which data are lacking. In NBA 2011, estuarine ecosystem type was defined based on the associated mouth state, salinity structure, adjacent freshwater type and size, to align with the estuarine Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 5 ecosystem types used for the assessment of threat status and protection level in the NBA (Van Niekerk and Turpie, 2012). A target of 20% was set for the total area of each type to be protected. In the recent NBA 2018, estuarine ecosystem protection levels are low, both in terms of number of types and in area. Overall, nearly 82% (19 out of 22 types) of South Africa’s estuarine ecosystem types are under-protected. Only 18% of estuarine ecosystem types are Well Protected (four types), while about 36% are Moderately Protected (eight types) and 32% are Poorly Protected (seven types. In the case of estuaries, protection is not only affected by localised management actions but also through ensuring adequate quantity and quality of freshwater flows into the estuary. In future, flows into an estuary will be decided based on its Water Resource Class (I, II, or III) determined under the National Water Resources Classification System (Dollar et al., 2010). 1.3.4 Link between water resources and key components of estuaries Figure 3 illustrated the key estuarine indicators and components, and it is evident that there is a direct correlation between the estuarine (water resource) and the biotic and abiotic ecosystem components. Furthermore, from Figure 4 is it evident that the estuarine biotic components are also related to the characteristic of watercourses hydrology (surface flow, surface runoff and interflow), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota) which are the focal points of rehabilitation in this report. Figure 4: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and key components of estuaries. Note: Although Figure 4 illustrates the hydrology (relating to river flow whereby water moves in one direction) as the first component of characteristics of watercourses, it should be noted that the component of connectivity i.e., hydraulics hydrodynamics and connectivity mouth state are also considered whereby the flow pattern in estuaries is unsteady, not only because of the tidal rise and fall at the mouth but also because of the water flowing both ways (i.e., not one-way but in both directions) because of the aspect of tidal action. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 6 1.3.5 Estuarine Ecosystem Services and Impacts Estuarine Ecosystem Services Ecosystem services are the benefits that nature provides to people (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], 2021). Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems that are culturally, commercially, and recreationally important. Moreover, they support diverse and abundant ecological communities of Fauna and Flora. Additionally, estuaries provide water filtration and habitat protection (NOAA, 2021). The major concern is that estuarine systems are some of the most heavily used and threatened natural systems globally (Worm et al., 2006). It has been reported that estuaries are intensively and continuously being deteriorated by anthropogenic activities leading to 50% of salt marshes, 35% of mangroves, and 29% of seagrasses being either lost or degraded worldwide (Barbie, 2011). It is for such reasons that the DWS realised the need for the development of rehabilitation management guidelines in order to mitigate against and promote their critical value as well as their benefits to the environment. There are four main types of ecosystem services as per the Common International categorisation of ecosystem services (Young and Potchin, 2018): • Provisioning Services; • Regulating Services; • Supporting Services; and • Cultural Services. Table 1 provides some of estuarine ecosystem services and examples. Table 1: Estuarine Ecosystem Services Source: Young and Potchin, 2018 Ecosystem Types Description Examples Provisioning Services Provisioning services are food, raw material, freshwater, and medicinal resources from the ecosystem that benefits people. Many provisioning services are traded in markets. However, in many regions, rural households also directly depend on provisioning services for their livelihoods. • Fisheries: Estuaries serve as important breeding and nursery grounds for many commercially important fish and shellfish species, contributing to local and global fisheries. • Shellfish Harvesting: Oysters, clams, mussels, and other shellfish are harvested from estuaries, providing a valuable source of seafood. Regulating Services Maintaining the quality of air and soil, providing flood and disease control, or pollinating crops are some of the services provided by ecosystems. They are often invisible and therefore mostly taken for granted. When they are damaged, the resulting losses can be substantial and difficult to restore. • Flood Regulation: Estuaries act as natural buffers against storm surges and flooding by absorbing and dissipating the energy of incoming waves and tides. • Water Purification: Estuaries can filter pollutants from water, improving water quality as it moves from the land into the ocean. • Carbon Sequestration: Salt marshes and seagrass beds within estuaries can sequester carbon dioxide, helping mitigate the impacts of climate change. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 7 Ecosystem Types Description Examples Supporting Services Providing living spaces for plants or animals and maintaining a diversity of plants and animals, are supporting services and they form the basis of all ecosystems and their services. • Habitat and Biodiversity: Estuaries provide diverse habitats that support a wide range of plant and animal species, including migratory birds, aquatic organisms, and numerous specialized species adapted to brackish environments. • Nursery Areas: Many marine species use estuaries as nurseries, where juveniles can find food, protection, and suitable environmental conditions for growth. Ecosystem Processes and Functions: o Tidal Mixing: The mixing of freshwater and saltwater driven by tides creates a dynamic environment that supports various species and nutrient cycling. o Nutrient Cycling: Estuaries are important sites for nutrient cycling, where organic matter and nutrients from land are broken down and recycled, benefiting both estuarine and coastal ecosystems o Salt Marsh and Seagrass Ecosystems: These habitats provide valuable services, including shoreline stabilization, water filtration, and habitat for various species. o Detritus Food Web: The breakdown of plant and animal material (detritus) supports a food web that sustains many estuarine species Cultural Services The non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems are called cultural service. They include aesthetic inspiration, cultural identity, sense of home, and spiritual experience related to the natural environment. Typically, opportunities for tourism and for recreation are also considered within this group. • Recreation: Estuaries offer opportunities for recreational activities such as boating, fishing, birdwatching, and photography • Aesthetic and Spiritual Value: People appreciate the natural beauty of estuaries and often have cultural and spiritual connections to these unique landscapes. • Educational Value: Estuaries provide valuable opportunities for research, education, and raising awareness about ecosystem dynamics and conservation. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 8 Estuarine Impacts Anthropogenic (human) activities are the main causes of estuarine impacts (Figure 5). These activities, both direct and indirect, are increasingly impacting estuaries and their ability to sustain productivity and associated ecosystem services (Borja et al., 2016). Managing, and potentially reducing human impacts on these ecosystems, requires a scientific basis drawing on spatial and temporal trends in ecosystem health (Andersen et al., 2015). Direct anthropogenic (human) pressures can be grouped broadly into five major categories that have been identified namely as follows: • Water resource use i.e., hydrological - flow modification patterns due to weirs, dams, and over-abstractions; • Land-use i.e., anthropogenic alteration such as canalisation, riparian infrastructure, infilling; • Exploitation of living resources i.e., Over-exploitation of fish and invertebrates; • Pollution i.e., point (e.g., WWTWs) and diffuse sources (e.g., runoff); and • Artificial breaching i.e., manipulation of estuary mouths. Indirect pressures largely relate to biological invasions by plants and fish i.e., alien invasive species. Climate change is another impact that cause significant changes on the ecosystem structure and functioning and result in the loss of biodiversity. Figure 5: Illustration of some of the key catchment pressures on estuaries Source: Van Niekerk et al., 2020 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 9 1.4 ESTUARINE REHABILITATION DEFINITIONS Rehabilitation is the process of promoting the recovery of ecosystem services and values in a transformed/degraded system in order to reclaim part of the system's lost societal value (Hay and McKenzie, 2005). The benefit of ensuring that ecosystems are in good ecological condition secures ecosystem services and maintain resilience against climate change impacts. 1.5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES The Estuarine Rehabilitation Management Guidelines are developed to mitigate negative impacts, on hydrology (surface flow and interflow), groundwater flows, physiochemical (saline mixing ratio), water quality, habitat, and biota. The following are aspects to be covered under each characteristic of watercourse: • Description of the specific key estuarine components and their natural phases; • Types of impacts for each characteristic of a watercourse – brief overview and description of the impacts that gives rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal Considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of a watercourse; and • Development of Rehabilitation Guidelines - Step by step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. 1.5.1 Estuarine Rehabilitation Guiding Principles Wiseman and Sowman (1992) argued that there are four principles that underlie the approach to estuarine rehabilitation. They include: • Identification of the symptoms of transformation and degradation; • Determination of the probable causes of these symptoms • Choosing the desired "restored state" of the estuary; and • Evaluation of the alternative strategies to achieve the restored state. The need for rehabilitation arises due to degradation. Although interventions may not be able to reinstate water resources to a natural state, a functional state must be the aim of ecosystem recovery initiatives. King et al., (2003) and WRC (2016) recommended the following key principles for rehabilitation: • Defining Rehabilitation Objectives; • The objectives for rehabilitation should be clear, explicit and be defined by the principles listed above; • Rehabilitation must direct the system back towards a more natural state, and work in harmony with the major abiotic drivers of ecosystem; • Undertaking rehabilitation should be seen as an interdisciplinary activity, recognising that rehabilitation may be necessary over a range of spatial and temporal scales; • Rehabilitation should aim at treating causes rather than symptoms; • Given that ecosystems are dynamic and can naturally exist in alternative metastable states, it should be remembered that it is easier to cross a degradation threshold than to return over it; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 10 • Monitoring should be an essential component of rehabilitation. Below is a list of some key important aspects/approaches and applicability of the above-mentioned principles: • Ecosystem-based approach; • Re-instating natural processes; • Enhancing biodiversity and habitat diversity; • Improving water quality; • Flood mitigation and erosion control; • Stakeholder engagement and community involvement; and • Long-term sustainability. 1.5.2 Approach The Estuaries Rehabilitation Guidelines being developed aim to provide guidance to the water users on step-by-step rehabilitation measures/interventions to be followed for executing rehabilitation with specific attention to and consideration of planning, design, implementation, and monitoring for the identified impacts. Table 2 below presents the approach to be followed for development of the estuarine rehabilitation guidelines. Table 2: Approach to be followed for the development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Estuaries Phase Description PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase • The characteristics will be diagnosed to determine the level of modification and rehabilitation measures that will be recommended to reinstate the conditions of the drivers. • Determine the conditions and the type, size, extent of impacts on characteristics of watercourses. PHASE 2: Planning & Assessment Phase • Conduct planning and assessment to ensure the desired rehabilitation outcomes are achieved. • Assess and collate available information from historical and current maps & available datasets on the affected watercourses. • Review and assess legal considerations. PHASE 3: Define the Rehabilitation Objectives • Identify and define the objectives of rehabilitation to ensure the impacts on the characteristics of watercourses are addressed. PHASE 4: Execution • Recommend techniques and methods to address impacts identified. Consider protection of water resources ecosystem. PHASE 5: Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E) and Reporting • Monitor the results of the techniques and methods employed for rehabilitation to determine whether objectives are being achieved and whether there are any additional interventions required. • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. • Compilation of Rehabilitation Reports. Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 11 1.6 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES The Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries is a set of tools developed to ensure that clear and practical steps are provided on a wide range of rehabilitation measures/interventions related to characteristics of watercourses that take cognisance of legal, social, economic, and ecological issues and aspects. The guidelines are intended for all Government Departments (National, Provincial and Local), Proto/Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs), sectoral institutions (i.e., higher education institutions), civil society members, non-governmental entities, private sector (agriculture, industries, mining) and all interested and affected parties involved in the water sector. These guidelines are developed at a national scale for implementation at a Catchment level. 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES The guideline is divided into four main sections as follows: • The opening sections contain the document signatories, document index and status, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of figures, tables, acronyms, and executive summary. • Section 1 provides the background to the development of the guidelines, estuarine categorisation system and characteristics, estuarine key indicators and components, links between water resources and key components of estuaries, estuarine ecosystem services, estuarine impacts, purpose, approach, intended users and structure of the guidelines. • Section 2 provides the overarching legal framework for estuary rehabilitation. • Section 3 describes the characteristics of watercourses and their linkage to water resources and the step-by-step Technical Rehabilitation Guidelines for key components of estuaries. • Section 4 provides recommendations and a way forward. 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK According to Section 24 of the Constitution of South Africa, everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being, and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation, promote conservation, and secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development. There is a variety of legal tools (i.e., acts, gazettes) that need to be considered when undertaking estuarine rehabilitation activities. The two main pieces of overarching legislation in South Africa are the National Water Act (NWA) (Act 36 of 1998) and National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) (Act 107 of 1998). These two legislative tools in some instances give provision for some small-scale rehabilitation activities to be undertaken without prior authorization (NEMA) or are eligible for General Authorization (under the NWA). Medium to large scale rehabilitation activities may require different types of approvals prior to commencement, such as licenses, environmental authorizations, permits or rights. The various types of environmental approvals are discussed below. There are other related environmental legislations that can apply to estuarine rehabilitation activities depending on Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 12 the cause for rehabilitation and different activities of rehabilitation that may need to be carried out. The overarching pieces of legislation applicable to estuarine rehabilitation are as follows: • Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996; • National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) (NWA); • National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, 2008 (Act 24 of 2008); • National Forests Act ,1998 (Act No 84 of 1998); • National Ports Act, 2005 (Act 12 of 2005) • Fertilisers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947); • Seashore Act, 1935 (Act 21 of 1935); • Municipal by-laws; and • Draft Climate Change Bill (2023). When setting the objectives for all rehabilitation scenarios, consideration must be given to the (NBA 2018) recommendations on the Ecological Category of estuaries and the DWS RDM outputs. 2.2 LEGAL CONSIDERATION SPECIFIC TO ESTUARIES REHABILITATION National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) Estuary and watercourse are separately defined in the NWA. These definitions imply that estuaries are not seen as watercourses. Therefore Section 21 (c) and (i) activities will not be regulated in estuaries unless there is a freshwater link i.e, estuaries with salt marshes form part of the tidal zone, but there may be a strong freshwater inflow on the other side. Therefore, any activity from the 500 m of the freshwater zone would trigger Section 21 (c) and (i) activities. Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) Act, 2008 (Act 24 of 2008) Under the Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) Act, the coastal protection zone depicted in Figure 6 (coastal zone) consists of the following: • Sensitive coastal areas, as defined by the Environment Conservation Act (Act No. 73 of 1989, section 21 [1]); • Any part of the littoral active zone that is not coastal public property; • Any coastal protected area, or part of such an area, which is not coastal public property; • Any rural land unit that is situated within 1000 metres of the High-Water Mark (HWM) which is zoned as agricultural or undetermined; • Any urban land unit that is situated completely or partly within 100 metres of the HWM; • Any coastal wetland, lake, lagoon or dam which is situated completely or partially within a land unit situated within 1000 metres of the HWM that was zoned for agricultural or undetermined use, or is within 100 metres of the HWM in urban areas; • Any part of the seashore which is not coastal public property (including all privately owned land below the HWM); • Any admiralty reserve which is not coastal public property; and • Any land that would be inundated (submerged or covered) by a 1:50 year flood or storm event (this includes flooding caused by both rainstorms and rough seas). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 13 The ICM Act also provides for the establishment of a coastal management line, designed to protect the coastal protection zone. No new development (construction) is permitted within a coastal management line. Figure 6: The Coastal Zone of South Africa Celliers et al., 2009 Several coastal-related activities for which an EIA is required have been defined in relation to a 100 m management line in EIA Regulations 2017. In addition, the coastal buffer zone defined by the ICM Act (Section 16) is 100 m for certain land-uses and the Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEDEAT). Draft Wild Coast Environmental Management Plan recommends that estuaries that are still pristine and undeveloped should be retained in that state and all development should have a suitable buffer with estuaries, at least 100 m in most cases. Thus, in general, a setback line of 100 m is regarded as an acceptable and effective buffer against human interference with the estuary and its sensitive riparian areas, though exceptions may occur. NEMA EIA Regulations Any proposed development activities within 32 m of the edge of a river, water course or wetland/salt marsh is regulated by the EIA regulations (2017) of NEMA. Any such development triggers a requirement to obtain environmental authorisation by way of an environmental impact assessment. However, a development setback line of 100 m for estuaries as suggested above would automatically exclude all activities that occur within 32 m of the edge of the estuary. Listing Notice 3 (GNR 324: 2017) of the National Environmental Management: Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations defines the EFZ as the area in and around an estuary which includes the open water area, estuarine habitat (such as sand and mudflats, rock and plant communities) and the surrounding floodplain area, as defined by the area below the 5 m topographical contour. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 14 National Forests Act (NFA), 1998 (Act No 84 of 1998) The act ensures the effective protection and sustainability of natural forests through proper control over development and land use change affecting forests in South Africa in a cooperative manner in all regions, and according to the mandates stipulated under the NFA. Natural forests and woodlands form an important part of the environment and need to be conserved and developed according to the principles of sustainable management. Plantation forests play an important role in the economy. They also have an impact on the environment and need to be managed appropriately. Invaders like Eucalyptus or Pinus species encroaching the riparian vegetation from forest plantation must be eradicated since they have impact on indigenous flora and river flows. By-laws Municipal by-laws such as Sanitation, Land use Management, Waste Management, Diffuse Water Quality Management, Estuarine and River by-laws [applicable (per coastal area)] need to be considered by every person(s) undertaking rehabilitation. Other area specific policies and legislations include the following: 1. Wild Coast Tourism Development Policy (WCTDP) gazetted February 2001. The WCTDP is gazetted and is therefore the primary planning document for tourism development within 1 km of the high-water mark on the Wild Coast. 2. Western Cape Biodiversity Act No. 6 of 2021 – the act sets out a best practice model for the governance of public entities in the conservation practice. It integrates administrative provisions and institutions for the conservation, restoration, management and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems in the Western Cape Province. Table 3 presents a summary of Legislative Tools Applicable to Estuaries Rehabilitation. Table 3: Legislative Tools Applicable for Estuarine Rehabilitation Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process/Application DWS National Water Act 36 of 1998 19, 20, 21, 39 Water Use License Application (WULA), General Authorization (GA) Resource Directed Measures (RDM) Gazetted RDM outputs Gazettes DFFE National Environmental Management Act, Act 107 of 1998 • Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation (2014) • Listing Notice 1, 2, and 3 (GN R983, R984, R985) List of activities that have been identified as having the potential to cause harm to the environment that need to be investigated in detail through an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process such that magnitude, extent, and timing of these negative impacts can be fully understood and weighed up again potential positive impacts (social or economic benefits). • Section 30 Control of Incidents; ‘incident’ means an unexpected, sudden, and uncontrolled release of a hazardous substance, including from a major emission, fire or explosion, that causes, has caused or may cause significant harm to the environment, human life or property. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 15 Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process/Application • Section 30A Emergency situation means a situation that has arisen suddenly that poses an imminent and serious threat to the environment, human life, or property, including a ‘disaster’ as defined in section 1 of the Disaster Management Act, 2002 (Act No. 57 of 2002), but does not include an incident referred to in section 30 of this Act. National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, 2008 (Act 24 of 2008) (ICMA) • Directives Facilitate the sustainable use and management of South Africa’s coastline and coastal and estuarine resources. • Section 69 (1) No person may discharge effluent that originates from a source on land into coastal waters except in terms of a GA contemplated in subsection (2) or a coastal waters discharge permit issued under this section by the Minister after consultation with the Minister responsible for the DWS in instances of discharge of effluent into an estuary. • Section 71 (3) The Minister may not grant a dumping permit that authorises the dumping of any waste or other material, other than— • dredged material; • sewage sludge; • fish waste, or material resulting from industrial fish processing operations; • vessels and platforms or other man-made structures at sea; • inert, inorganic geological material; • organic material of natural origin: or • bulky items primarily comprising iron, steel, concrete and similarly nonharmful materials for which the concern is physical impact and limited to those circumstances where such wastes are generated at locations, such as small islands with isolated communities, having no practicable access to disposal options other than dumping at sea. Costal Management Programmes (CMPs) - The promulgation of the ICMA, for the first time mandated the development of CMP. CMP is a policy directive for the management of the coastal zone, inclusive of strategies and plans for the effective implementation of the ICMA to enable organs of state to plan accordingly, to set a course for the environmental future of a nation by addressing the resolution of current management problems and user- conflicts (due to the wide variety of activities and uses of the coast), as well as the long-term development and management of the coastline. CMP is intended to be used by coastal provinces, coastal municipalities, coastal practitioners and decision-makers, as well as professionals working in non-government organisations and other organisations and institutions that have a bearing on coastal management. National Forests Act ,1998 (Act No 84 of 1998) • Section 1 Promote the sustainable use of forests for environmental, economic, educational, recreational, cultural, health and spiritual purposes. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 16 Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process/Application • Section 7 (2) Mangrove forest 1 is one of the National forests type declared under Section 7 (2) of the NFA as national forests type and was published at a Government gazette No 31232 of 18 July 2008. • Section 3(3)(a), Section 12, and Section 15 Application is needed for a licence to destroy the natural forest (i.e., Barrington racemosa, Brugeria Gymnorrhiza and Rhizophora mucronate, which in terms of Section 3(3)(a) of the Act may only be granted in exceptional circumstances cases. Some mangroves trees species are also protected under Section 12 of the NFA, for which license is needed under Section 15 of the Act. National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004) • 52, 53, 56, 57, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Basic Assessment Report (BAR) National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act 59 of 2008) • 45 Water Management License (WML), Licence in terms of section 45 Department of Transport National Ports Act, 2005 (Act 12 of 2005) • Section 74 (3a) The Harbour Master is, in respect of the port for which he or she is appointed, the final authority in respect of all matters relating to pilotage, navigation, navigational aids, dredging and all other matters relating to the movement of vessels within port limits. DALRRD Fertilisers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947) • Section 3(1)(2)(3), Section 7 The act provides for the registration of fertilisers, farm feeds, agricultural remedies, stock remedies, sterilising plants, and pest control operators with the aim of regulating or prohibiting the importation, sale, acquisition, disposal or use of fertilisers, farm feeds, agricultural remedies, and stock remedies. Furthermore, it governs the use of antimicrobials for growth promotion and prophylaxis/metaphylaxis and the purchase of over-the-counter (OTC) antimicrobials by the lay public (chiefly farmers). The Deeds Registries Act, 1937 (Act 47 of 1937) • Section 19 (1)(a)(b) The act defines land ownership and registration of deeds. An owner of land is a person in control of land or a person who occupies or uses the land on which: • any activity or process is or was performed or undertaken; or • any other situation exists, which causes or has caused or is likely to cause pollution of a water resource. An owner must take all reasonable measures to prevent any such pollution from occurring, continuing, or recurring. The said owner of the land would have to register their land with the deeds of registries. Municipalities By-laws Sanitation, Land use Management, Waste Management, Diffuse Water Quality Applicable (per area) municipal by-laws need to be considered by every person(s) undertaking rehabilitation. 1 Mangrove rehabilitation has been attempted in various degrees of success and usually require planting or replanting seeds of trees species, with due consideration of the specific environmental requirements of various mangroves species especially tidal depth. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 17 Institution Legislative Tool Sections Process/Application Management, Estuarine and River by-laws 2.3 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PRINCIPLES Various policies, strategies and principles inform Estuarine Rehabilitation Management in South Africa, and these include, but are not limited, to the items: Policies and Strategies • National Development Plan; • The National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS III) (2023); • The National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP) (2018); • The Draft Environmental Rehabilitation Policy (2014); • The Integrated Water Quality Management (IWQM) Policies (2016) and Strategies for South Africa (2017); • Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa – Second Edition (2022); • The implementation of Gazetted Resource Directed Measures (RDM), particularly the Reserve, Resource Quality Obsessives (RQOs), Water Resource Classification and Sources Directed Controls (SDCs); • The Catchment Management Strategy is informed by the National Water Policy and promotes the sustainable balance between utilisation and protection of water resources in a catchment; and • Policy principles and guidelines for control of development affecting natural forests (2010) aimed to ensure the effective protection and sustainability of natural forests through proper control over development and land use change affecting forests in South Africa. Key Water Resource Management Principles and Concepts • Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) - a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land and environmental resources. It takes into account the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. • Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) - aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets. Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. • Social-Ecological System (SES) – are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 18 3. GUIDELINES FOR KEY COMPONENTS OF ESTUARIES • In the Diagnostic Phases of all the rehabilitation scenarios in the guidelines, the EMPs and RDM outputs (Reserve, Classification and RQOs) should be consulted to establish estuarine status in terms of any targets that have been set to ensure site-specific rehabilitation measures are put in place per estuary. It should also be noted that the recommended rehabilitation measures under each execution phase are estuary specific and dependent on the site-specific conditions. 3.1 HYDROLOGY 3.1.1 Description Hydrology is the science which deals with terrestrial waters. It focuses on the following key components of terrestrial waters: • Occurrence of terrestrial ecosystems; • Circulation and distribution on our planet; • Physical and chemical properties of terrestrial ecosystems; and • Interaction with the physical and biological environment, including human impact contributions (IHE, 1998). Methods to determine the environmental flow requirement of estuaries were established soon after the promulgation of the National Water Act (NWA) in 1998. The “Preliminary Reserve Method” involves setting a Recommended Ecological Category (i.e., desired state), recommended Ecological Reserve (i.e., flow allocation to achieve the desired state), and recommended Resource Quality Objectives for a resource on the basis of its present health status and its ecological importance. The approach follows a generic methodology that can be carried out at different levels of effort (e.g., rapid, intermediate, or comprehensive). The official method for estuaries (Version 2) is documented in DWAF (2008). In 2013, Version 3 of the method was published as part of a Water Research Commission study (Turpie et al., 2012). 3.1.2 Types of Impact 3.1.2.1 Dam Construction and Weirs Human‐induced disturbance such as instream dams and weirs within and in close proximity to estuaries alters the hydraulics of the estuarine ecosystem which results in impacts on biota. These barriers also alter the flow characteristics which cause changes in the physical habitats upon which biota depend. Moreover, these structures have connectivity impacts on the physical habitat and biota and negative impact on the ecology of the estuaries by preventing the natural migration of biota and sediment. Other impacts of dams and weirs worth mentioning are: • Impact on sediment transport (reduces sediment transport into the Estuaries) which causes a negative impact on the ecology of the estuaries e.g., morphological transformation; • Increases the probability of erosion downstream of the riverbed which can cause turbidity during floods which has an impact on the water quality; and • Possibility of increasing the water temperature which might affect aquatic life; however, this might be dependent on the quantity of the water being released into the estuary. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 19 Note: The impacts are dependent on the size and location of the dam/weir structure (this becomes essential during the design stage). 3.1.2.2 Urbanisation and poor land use The demand for freshwater to meet domestic, industrial, and agricultural demands grows as the population grows. The urbanisation of coastal watersheds also results in greater impervious land cover leading to accelerated freshwater runoff rates and higher river discharges rate i.e., the same volume of run-off takes place over a shorter period. An increase in freshwater flow rates results in a decrease in water residence time in estuaries, which increases their capacity to dilute, transform or get rid of pollutants (Kennish, 2017) (unless sediment-bound). Other changes that can significantly alter water- flow regimes along coasts include channelisation, marsh impoundment, and wetland habitat destruction which affect natural water storage capacity. 3.1.2.3 Over-abstraction Human-induced disturbances such as over-abstraction of water from rivers result in reduced flow volumes and changes in flow drivers and hydrodynamics (e.g., reduced flow depth can lead to temperature increases; reduced total energy will reduce sediment migration) which have a direct impact on ecological category, habitat, and biota of estuarine systems. Over-abstraction activities also alter the freshwater/saltwater balance. Over-abstraction may result in exposure of organic soils and peat, which may increase the release of greenhouse gasses such as methane, and reduce the nursery function of the estuary, which in turn, negatively impacts fish reserves for local poor communities and the fishery industry. 3.1.2.4 Bridges Bridges are formal structures that provide safe crossing for one or more modes of transport and/or humans or animals over the course of other transport modes, humans, animals, and watercourses. Bridges have the following impacts (depending on the type): • Changes flow dynamics; • Changes in erosion and sedimentation processes and patterns; • Disturbs benthic habitat; and • Disrupts migration routes. The following should be considered when constructing a bridge as it will have implications for potential need for rehabilitation: • Understand the erosion, deposition and water exchange patterns and foundation conditions before deciding on the location and type of bridge to be constructed; • The shape and location of the foundation structures must not interrupt flow patterns; • Bridge foundations and structures should be able to withstand major flood events in accordance with the South African National Road Agency SOC Ltd (SANRAL) Drainage Manual (2015) i.e., different roads have different standards; • Fully understand the effect of floods, flood levels, and sediment movement; and • Ensure that a structural engineer with experience in coastal environments registered with a professional body is employed to carry out the planning, design, and construction supervision of a bridge in the EFZ. The design of a bridge within the EFZ must aim to avoid or minimise the following: • Size of the footprint and foundations within the water course and floodplain; • Eddying around bridge pillars (piers) or foundations; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 20 • Undercutting of structures and foundations; • Approach embankments intruding into watercourses and floodplains and interfering with flow patterns; • Alteration of flow patterns and backwater effects or impounding of streams; • Sediment mobilisation; • Loss of riparian habitat during bridge construction; • Blocking of riparian wildlife corridors; • Aesthetically insensitive design for perspectives from above and below the bridge; and • Pollution of the estuarine environment. The considerations must also take into account new activities that are planned within estuaries. 3.1.2.5 Jetties & Piers Piers are large-scale structures of major capital investment, constructed using massive volumes of concrete and steel, and requiring significant foundations. Jetties are simple structures commonly constructed of wood and/or steel. Jetties may be anchored to the river or estuary bed or floating from a secured shore-based point. Jetties and piers have the following impacts: • Changes flow dynamics; • Changes in erosion and sedimentation processes and patterns; • Disturbs benthic habitat; • Pollution caused by fuel spillages from boats; and • Access point for fishing. Consider the below when rehabilitating or removing jetties and/or piers: • Ensure that a qualified specialist is employed to carry out the rehabilitation or removal of jetties and/or piers; • Ensure that local flooding risks and tidal surges are determined by considering the number and jetty or pier types as well as their location; • Ensure that bank stabilisation is performed according to Scenario 2 of Geomorphology of this guidelines under Section 3.2.3; • Ensure that the foundations of jetties and piers are below the expected erosion level to resist undermining during storm and flood conditions; • Sediment stabilisation and debris trapping should be taken into consideration in the design and construction of jetties and pier; • Irreparable jetties and piers must be completely removed; • Ensure that the number of private jetties is restricted as far as reasonably possible; • Ensure that Jetties and piers are maintained at all times; and • A procedure for removal, relocation, or redesign that will lessen the environmental effects should be used to deal with jetties or piers that are improperly situated and are contributing to increasing bank erosion, posing a risk to water users or wildlife, or negatively impacting estuary functioning. 3.1.2.6 Slipways/Launching Ramps Slipways are used to facilitate the movement of boats into and out of water. The impacts of slipways are as follows: • Habitat loss; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 21 • Changes in flow dynamics; • Erosion; and • Fuel spillages from boats. Consider the below when rehabilitating or removing slipways/launching ramps: • Make sure the slipways are supported by adequate facilities and access, with a focus on preventing negative environmental effects like oil, fuel, and detergent pollution (wash bays) or damage to vegetation due to impromptu staging and parking; • Slipways should comply with South African Maritime Safety Association (SAMSA) guidelines and safety standards for coastal and inland navigation; • Ensure that the slipway is placed in a sheltered protected area with short wave action to minimise the need for artificial protection unless a more environmentally acceptable option exists; • Ensure that the slipway is built parallel to wave direction i.e., at right angles to predominant waves; • Ensure that the kind and size of boats that will likely be launched are considered while choosing the slope of the slipway; • Ensure that the slipway's width is based on the level of wave or swell protection. Typically, a single lane would be 5 m with enough protection and 7 m with inadequate protection. The width should also be informed by the rate at which vessels need to vacate the water body in the event of a storm or similar emergency; • Ensure that the slipway surface is coarse or wavy (corrugated), especially in tidal estuaries and marine areas, to aid grip when marine vegetation is prominent; and • Slipways should be clearly marked so that their position is visible to users especially during adverse conditions. 3.1.2.7 Stormwater discharge structures Stormwater structures are discharge points into rivers, estuaries, floodplains, and wetlands from developed areas. Stormwater structures impact the following: • Changes in flow dynamics; • Changes in erosion and sedimentation processes; • Habitat transformation/loss; and • Water quality pollution. The below should be considered when rehabilitating or removing physical structures: • The rehabilitation or removal of the structure must not degrade natural processes and should interrupt water flow as little as possible; • The structures must be aesthetically compatible with the receiving environment; • The structures may not interfere with legitimate public access to coastal public property or adjacent landowners; • The structures must accommodate the effects of climate change; • Physical structures must not facilitate unsustainable impacts on ecological systems or species; and • If the structure/s leads to unsustainable impacts, they must be removed. This must be done in a manner that will not disturb the natural processes of the environment. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 22 3.1.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Hydrology (Surface flow, runoff, and baseflow) Scenario 1: Rehabilitation or removal of physical structures (stormwater structures, weirs) within the water resource PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Identify the physical structures that need to be rehabilitated or removed. Step 2: Conduct a desktop assessment of the physical structures that need to be removed. Step 3: Consult local, provincial, or national authorities responsible for the physical structures (municipal as well as Provincial DWS and DEA&DP Offices). PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct ground truthing of the physical infrastructure that needs to be rehabilitated or removed. Step 2: If the physical structures are legal, conduct a public participation process for the rehabilitation or removal of these physical structures in accordance with NEMA regulations. Step 3: If the physical structures are illegal, the responsible person must remove the mentioned structure, or the authority will follow the litigation process. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitating or removing physical structures must be defined and be clear from the onset. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • To remove or rehabilitate any physical structures within the estuary, without inducing other adverse impacts; • To rehabilitate a more natural flow regime by rehabilitating or removing the physical structures; • To revitalise the natural regime of the estuary by removing any obstruction in the estuary; • To improve biodiversity by allowing the revitalisation of the natural regime of the estuary; and • To prevent habitat degradation. PHASE 4: Execution The following are recommended for consideration when rehabilitating stormwater discharge structures: • Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems must be used where applicable. This is consistent with the ideas of working with nature and sustainable development; • Ensure that stormwater outlets are built in compliance with local municipal bylaws, and general best practices, and resist erosion and flood events of a size related to expected climate change consequences, such as sea level rise and amplified extreme weather events; • Ensure that the quantity and quality of stormwater is managed prior to reaching the natural environment, in so far as practical; and • Ensure that water quality is monitored before it is discharged into floodplains, rivers, or estuaries and pollution control measures must be taken both at the source and before discharge. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 23 PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring • Ensure that the quantity of stormwater is managed prior to reaching the natural environment, in so far as practical; • Monitor the rehabilitated/removed structures; • Monitor seasonal flows (low flow and high flow) the flow and habitat conditions at least twice per annum. If there is a negative change, deal with it accordingly; • Monitoring parameters and frequency depending on the type of estuary in question are as follows: o Hydrodynamics and mouth condition; o Mouth Closure – Dailly observation when the mouth is nearly closed or open; and o A periodic mouth closure for less than 3-months in duration. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 2 (A): Control and Management of over-abstraction activities in the catchment affecting the freshwater volumes reaching the estuary. Note: Human-induced disturbances such as over-abstraction of water from rivers result in flow impediment impacts and changes in flow drivers and hydrodynamics of the estuary, which have a direct impact on ecological category health (including habitat and biota) of estuarine systems. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Describe the catchment area including the affected estuary. Step 2: Identify and describe water users within the area of concern. Step 3: Review all water users: o Registered users on the WARMS and eWULAAS o Identify unregistered/Illegal users through local authorities (DWS, DFFE and municipalities). PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Relevant Specialist must conduct a hydrological study of the catchment in question. Step 2: Use Google Earth Pro, Sentinel, and other available high-resolution images (<10 m spatial resolution) and other related techniques to identify water users abstracting water from the river. Step 3: Assess the Water use Authorization and Registration Management System (WARMS) and Electronic Water Use Licence Application and Authorisation System (e-WULAAS) on the permits, GAs/WULs given for the abstraction of Water. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 24 Step 4: Conduct ground truthing on Ecological Water Requirements (EWR), to determine whether required quantity and timing of freshwater inflows is reaching the estuaries. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Ideal state and Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of control and management of over-abstraction activities must be defined and be clear from the onset. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Some of the common objectives for rehabilitation are to control the abstraction of water from catchments and prevent flow impediment impact and changes in flow drivers and hydrodynamics into the estuary. PHASE 4.1: Execution (licensed user) Step 1: Ensure that each water user adheres to the abstraction limits set under the GA/WUL conditions, through continuous monitoring of abstraction volumes Step 2: The quantity of water to be abstracted must be measured for reporting purposes and to avoid exceedance of the licensed volumes Step 3: Ensure that EWR adhered to at all times. PHASE 4.2: Execution (unlicensed user) Step 1: All water users without a GA/WUL must cease abstraction activities until they are granted a GA/WUL Step 2: Directives should be issued to users who continue to abstract without a GA/WUL Step 3: Once GA/WUL is granted, all users must adhere to the abstraction/release volumes stipulated as per the GA/WUL conditions. Step 4: Users must observe the EWR and Reserve flows, taking into consideration the seasonal flows (wet and dry or winter and summer) in terms of percentages of Mean Annual Rainfall (MAR). Rules and Tables indicating seasonal (wet and summer) volumes to be left in the resource at a different percentile, especially 95th percentile. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Step 1: Regular monitoring will be required depending on the abstraction volumes according to the GA/WUL. Unlawful abstraction observed during monitoring should be reported to the DWS, DFFE and municipalities compliance and enforcement units. This will assist in quantifying the volumes of water loss/gains. This will also aid in Flow Requirement and Water Resource Classification Studies. Step 2: Monitor the following: o Volume of abstractions; o Monitor the flows of the river vs. license abstraction volumes; and o Changes in the physical habitats upon which biota depends on. flow characteristics which cause changes in the physical habitats upon which biota depend Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 25 Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas and the specific stretch of an estuary where flow improvement is visible or further required. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 2 (B): Control and Management of activities in the catchment i.e., baseflow and discharge from WWTWs contributing to increased freshwater flow into the system. Note: Baseflow (a natural phenomenon) is that portion of water that is contributed to streams by delayed groundwater. Therefore, this scenario will focus on the discharge of effluent from WWTWs [i.e., Section 21 (f)] contributing to the increase of the freshwater flow into the system i.e., freshwater becoming a driver in the system. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Describe the catchment area including the affected estuary. Step 2: Identify and describe water users within the area of concern. Step 3: Review all water users: o Registered users on the WARMS and eWULAAS o Identify unregistered/Illegal users through local authorities (DWS, DFFE) PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Use Google Earth Pro, Sentinel, and other available high-resolution images (<10 m spatial resolution) and other related techniques to identify water users discharging waste or water. containing waste into the river. Step 3: Assess the WARMS and e-WULAAS) on the permits, GAs/WULs given for discharging into the water resource. Step 4: Conduct ground truthing on Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs), to determine the quantity and quality of the inflows into estuaries. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Ideal state and Rehabilitation Objectives These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Some of the common objectives for rehabilitation are to control the volumes of freshwater into the estuaries and prevent changes to the quality and timing of water into the estuaries. PHASE 4.1: Execution (licensed user) Step 1: Ensure that each water user adheres to the discharge quantities and qualities set under the GA/WUL conditions, through continuous monitoring. Step 2: The quantity and quality of water to be discharged into the resource must be measured for reporting purposes and to avoid exceedance of the licensed volumes and qualities. Step 3: Ensure that EWR adhered to at all times. PHASE 4.2: Execution (unlicensed user) Step 1: All water users without a GA/WUL must cease discharging activities until they are granted a GA/WUL. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 26 Step 2: Directives should be issued to users who continue discharge into the water resource without a GA/WUL. Step 3: Once GA/WUL is granted, all users must adhere to the discharge quantities and qualities stipulated as per the GA/WUL conditions. Step 4: Users must observe the EWR and Reserve flows, taking into consideration the seasonal flows (wet and dry or winter and summer) in terms of percentages of Mean Annual Rainfall (MAR). Rules and Tables indicating seasonal (wet and summer) volumes to be left in the resource at a different percentile, especially 95th percentile. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Step 1: Regular monitoring will be required depending on the discharged volumes according to the GA/WUL. Unlawful discharges observed during monitoring should be reported to the compliance and enforcement unit. This will assist in quantifying the volumes of water loss/gains. This will also aid in Flow Requirement and Water Resource Classification Studies. Step 2: Monitor the following: o Discharge volumes; o Quality of the water discharged; o Monitor the flows of the river vs. license discharge volumes; and o Changes in the physical habitats upon which biota depends on. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas and the specific stretch of an estuary where flow improvement is visible or further required. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 3.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY 3.2.1 Description Geomorphology is a science focused on understanding Earth surface processes and landscape (such as estuaries, wetlands, mountains, valleys, river channels) evolution (Keller et.al., 2020). Geomorphological understanding is central to environmental flows because it is the interaction between flow, form, and substrate that influences habitat type, condition, availability, and biotic use across space and time (Meitzen et. al., 2013). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 27 3.2.2 Sources and Types of Impacts 3.2.2.1 Dredging and dredging material disposal Dredging causes mechanical damage and smothering of organisms in the sediments, which typically leads to mass mortality (Donázar-Aramendía et al., 2020). Dredging results in elevated turbidity levels, which reduces light penetration in the water environment, adversely affecting the phytoplankton aquatic vegetation (Cabrita et al., 2020). The roiling of sediments at the dredged site also releases nutrients and chemical contaminants from the bottom sediments, remobilizing them to other areas of the system. Thus, water quality can be adversely affected as well. 3.2.2.2 Human-induced sedimentation Poor catchment land-use practices lead to more sediment, especially finer fractions, entering the system (Cooper, 1994). The use and covering of land in coastal watersheds facilitate sediment inputs into estuaries, which contributes to biotic, and habitat impacts. During the construction process, the removal of natural vegetation and other structures increase erosion and the delivery of sediments to estuaries (Kennish, 2017). Sediment delivery to estuaries via these processes typically increases water column turbidity, light attenuation, and shading of the estuarine floor. This results in a decrease in production of seagrass beds and other benthic habitat that supports numerous faunal populations including many commercially and recreationally important finfish and shellfish species (Moore et al., 2012). The elevation of turbidity has proven to be responsible for seagrass loss which supports benthic communities (Moore et al., 2012). Another impact is the introduction of nutrients and/or organic matter into the estuary via sediment delivery or other means, which influences the bulk density of the sediment or soil from which estuarine plants grow. This influences the occurrence of erosion of soil on the estuary, leading to habitat loss. 3.2.2.3 Sand mining Sand mining activities on the floodplain i.e., an area of low-lying ground adjacent to a river, formed mainly of river sediments subjected to flooding, tends to remove the medium sand fractions from the system (Cooper, 1994). Mining activities also alter the flow of estuaries which causes changes in the habitats upon which biota depend. This is similar to the impacts associated with the development of dams and weirs in-stream, which result in sediment being trapped upstream of the wall and commensurate higher energy flux of water passing the wall in an apparent sediment-hungry response. 3.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of activities relating to sand mining, road construction and dredging (sand) (all of these activities impact on biota, habitat, water quality and hydrology) PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Use Google Earth Pro images and desktop research to identify estuaries and their upstream freshwater ecosystems that are affected by sand mining. Step 2: Undertake ground truthing surveys or use drones to verify information provided by desktop research. Further information can be sourced from the DWS managers responsible for the catchment. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 28 Step 1: In conjunction with Phase 1, establish the ecosystem status of that estuary (i.e hydrology, water quality, habitat, and biota) linked to different ecosystem services. Establishing the extent and nature of the changes that have occurred. Step 2: Identifying the main assets of the estuary and the threats to these, identifying why the system or a particular component of the ecosystem has been degraded; for effective rehabilitation. Step 3: Identifying, screening, and selecting candidate sites for rehabilitation based on the perceived threats to the assets. The aim of this step is to produce a list of sites and their problems, in order of priority for rehabilitation. This should be done when the causes of degradation of an identified asset occur in more than one locality, or where there is more than one reason for degradation, or when the main assets extend over, or occur in more than one locality. Step 4: Set priorities as to what should be done first considering how much funding is available, stakeholder visions of priorities. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives Define clear rehabilitation objectives based on information and data gathered in Phases 1 and 2. Some of the common objectives are to: • Improve the flow of estuaries which has been altered prioritising those with severe alterations and where sensitive habitats are degraded. • Improve habitat upon which biota depends. Note: The extent of degradation should be mapped and reported, and the minimum percentage that should be rehabilitated also listed and the area identified, as well as the remaining area for rehabilitation. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Implement a sustainable and reliable approach for addressing impacts relating to mining 2 , construction, and dredging activities. Step 2: Based on best practices, recommend rehabilitation management strategies, which include areas of further research and skill requirements, areas of collaboration as well as aspects of monitoring. Step 3: Implement best practices in accordance with the applicable legislation e.g., NWA, NEMA, MPRDA. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Appropriate monitoring and evaluation are a critical step in any rehabilitation management of estuaries in South Africa as a formal check on the outcome of a project. Without this, it is difficult to assess whether the objectives of the project are being (or have been) met. The evaluation also allows one to improve the techniques and approaches used. Monitor the following: • The rehabilitated areas to ensure they comply with pre-determined critical limits. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. 2 The users of the RMGs should also consult the DWS Best Practice Guidelines (BPGs) for mines dealing with pollution prevention and water management strategies and tools. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 29 Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitated area including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 2: Bank Erosion and Dune Rehabilitation It is preferable to leave the banks of rivers and estuaries in their natural state and to set development well back, behind a development set-back line. However, it is crucial to keep in mind that any disturbance to the bank of a natural river or estuary may alter the hydrodynamics of the system, changing the conditions under which the river flows and necessitating further channel alterations. Inadequately built structures may reflect stream flow or wave action, increasing the risk of damage to neighbouring exposed banks. To correctly identify the cause of the erosion and ensure the selection of appropriate and effective bank stabilisation methods in conjunction with erosion mitigation or where management of the erosion itself is not possible, consultation and a thorough investigation must take place prior to the planning and implementation of erosion measures. The active intervention measures for a specific scenario depend on the following factors when intervention and erosion protection are deemed appropriate by the competent authority(ies): • The magnitude of erosive forces; • The potential cyclical nature of erosive forces; • The possibility and characteristics of severe events; • Future weather patterns and climate; • Types of current and upcoming human activity in the region; and • How much upkeep is practical for the method that was chosen. Sand dunes are formed by wind deposits representing a store of sediments in the landward zones of normal high tides. Dunes can either be natural (formed by wind deposits) or artificial (engineered structures created to mimic the functionalities of natural dunes) (French, 2001). Dune rehabilitation refers to rehabilitation of the degraded natural or artificial dunes to optimize coastal protection services (UNEP-DTU, 2017). Importantly, dunes represent natural coastal protection measure such as providing buffers against waves and flooding. Dune rehabilitation could include establishing dune forests as a vegetation target and such rehabilitation may require a forest specialist. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Identify estuaries affected by bank erosion and dune de-stabilisation. Step 2: Identify and determine the causes of movement, weathering and/ or siltation of sand particles. Step 3: Conduct ground surveying with relevant authorities (municipal, conservation bodies as well as Provincial DWS and DEA&DP Offices) and make use of historic satellite imagery to inform changes and rate of changes. It is important to consider multiple years and natural hydrological cycles and mouth states. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Planning: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 30 Step 1: Consult relevant authorities (municipal, conservation body as well as Provincial DWS and DEA&DP Offices) in order to obtain buy-in from all stakeholders. Step 2: Identify areas that should be rehabilitated and the most appropriate method or combination of methods for rehabilitation as well as the related training and capacity needs. Step 3: Make provision for the financial costs of rehabilitation. Assessment: Step 1: Conduct an Environmental Impact Assessment on the proposed erection of bank stabilisation structures within the EFZ Step 2: Assess the following: o Assess the severity of the bank erosion and dune destabilisation; o Assess present and future human activities in the area that might impact erosion and siltation in the estuary; o Assess the potential and nature of extreme events; and o Conduct future climatic conditions and weather patterns. Step 3: Assess the degree of maintenance that would be practical for the selected method or combination thereof. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitating bank erosion and dune stabilisation must be defined and be clear from the onset. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • To create space in which to address bank erosion by managing eroding banks and sites and reaches where down-cutting or incising occurs; • To prevent erosion; • To prevent dune destabilisation; and • To revitalise the natural regime of the estuary and allow natural erosion of sediments that otherwise accumulate against encroaching alien plants. PHASE 4: Execution There are several methods that can be used for bank erosion and dune stabilization such as vegetation, soft or “green” engineering options, geotextiles and/or fences made from tree branches on the seaward side of an existing dune to trap sand and help stabilise any bare sand surfaces. Nature-based systems such as vegetation planting, revegetation with indigenous species and geotextile mats and erosion control blankets are some of the essential examples for creating resilient and sustainable solutions. These methods have been briefly explained below: a) Vegetation For low current velocities, the use of vegetation as a stabilisation method is appropriate. The approach uses environmentally friendly and aesthetically pleasing natural materials and processes. Vegetation management is typically regarded as a low-cost method with similar ease of installation. Eventually, if not significantly disturbed or damaged, it will be self-sustaining/reseeding. The following specific considerations apply to the use of vegetation: • Riverbank and suitable indigenous species must be used; • A variety of grasses can be used, but due to fluctuating water levels, it's usually best to use a mix of species planted at various elevations. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 31 • For vegetation to establish, there must be at least one uninterrupted growing season; • There may be different levels of maintenance and watering needed, depending on the designs, species mix, urgency, etc; and • Additional geo-textile (such as hessian sheets, honeycomb meshing (geocells) and similar products) may be needed to aid in establishment. A coastal vegetation specialist and/or dune rehabilitation specialist must be consulted to provide input to the most appropriate, and locally indigenous plant species to be utilised and method of growth establishment, including maintenance such as grass-cutting and fire management. b) Soft or “green” engineering options Western Cape DEA&DP undertook a study in 2021 to investigate the cause of erosion of channel banks in the Berg River Estuary potentially threatening valuable habitat. The study proposed the following three soft or green designs and techniques to be piloted for their effectiveness: • Regrading of the bank slope and planting with suitable indigenous vegetation is illustrated in Figure 8 – it is a low-cost solution that require the laying down of coir or jute matting to temporarily protect the soil from erosion while the plants grow. Suitable species to be planted on the banks and at specific locations up the bank were also recommended. Figure 8: Illustration of regrading of the bank and planting out with suitable indigenous species Source: DEA&DP, 2021 • Regrading of the bank slope and construction of a toe berm to prevent wash away of material into the channel and planting with suitable indigenous vegetation is illustrated in Figure 9 - it involves the regrading of the bank with a low wall at the downslope end located below the mid-tide level. It requires construction of either a small rock berm (Figure 10) which could be wrapped in a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) mesh, and geotextile bag designed for shoreline applications. Figure 7: Examples of vegetation coastal rehabilitation Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 32 Figure 9: Regrading of the bank with a timber wall at the downslope end Source: DEA&DP, 2021 Figure 10: Regrading of the bank with a rock filled mesh sack berm at the downslope end Source: DEA&DP, 2021 • Regrading of the bank slope and laying down of geo cells in which soil can be placed and suitable vegetation planted. This technique is illustrated in Figure 11. Figure 11: Geo cells vegetated with appropriate indigenous species Source: DEA&DP, 2021 Other measures recommended by the study to be implemented include prevention of trampling of the salt flats through the construction of board walks, limiting vehicle access, and that boat waves should be limited. c) Geotextile Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 33 A geotextile (Figure 12) is a permeable sheet that is used with a foundation, soil, rock, earth, or any other material related to geotechnical engineering as a crucial component of a building or infrastructure project. The geotextile, which serves as a sediment retention layer or structural component, can be made of natural or synthetic fibres. Natural fibre geotextile is made from sisal or coconut fibre, while synthetic geotextile is made from a variety of plastics (polymers). The textiles are also distinguished based on the method of production: woven, needle-punched, or heat-bonded. Common applications include: • Layers that act as a sediment retainer or a materials separator and are placed behind or between other structural elements; • Covering the surface to stop wind or water erosion; sand or silt-filled containers are used as structural elements instead of rock fill; • Matting in swales or stream channels; and Figure 12: Example of geotextile. d) Beach nourishment/replenishment Beach nourishment, or beach replenishment, is the process of replacing sand lost from a sandy shore due to longshore drift or erosion with material from elsewhere through mechanical means, or a combination of mechanical action and natural forces. It is employed in instances where a wider beach is preferred for safety (enhancing the natural buffer function), to improve a natural habitat (increase the size of natural areas) or aesthetic and economic reasons (to enhance the recreational amenity value) (Western Cape DEA&DP, 2019). The replacement of sand can be accomplished by directly depositing sand in a location where it is required, or by depositing sand above or below the water for the natural dispersive action by wind, wave, and currents to distribute across the beach area. The sand can be transported in the form of sludge in a pipeline or hauled in vehicles (Western Cape DEA&DP, 2019). Considerations that should inform beach nourishment include (Western Cape DEA&DP, 2019): • An understanding of the causes of erosion, as critical input into the design of a long-lasting intervention; • The capacity and resources available for maintenance of the nourishment scheme; • The nature of dispersive forces, to determine deposition sites (above or below water, and single or multiple sites) and avoid undesirable outcomes like steep slopes; • The type of replenishment material required (grain size, silt, or clay content); Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 34 • The sources of replenishment material and the impacts of material sourcing on the environment; • The impacts on the social and natural environments at the replenishment site; and • Alternatives such as landward retreat, structural intervention, or sand recruitment through entrapment. PHASE 5: Monitoring and Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Ensure appropriate regular monitoring of the rehabilitated area. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 3.3 WATER QUALITY 3.3.1 Description In estuaries, fresh water from rivers, streams and seepage combines with salt water from the ocean. As a result of the constant mixing of fresh and salt water, estuary water quality varies naturally. Furthermore, the physical water quality parameters in an estuary vary depending on the estuary structure and location (Costa et al., 2018). The main factors contributing to the degradation in water quality of estuaries are releases of industrial, domestic, and agricultural effluents (Alexakis, 2011; Brockmeyer and Spitzy, 2011), alteration of the chemical, physical and biological properties of water (Karydis and Kitsiou, 2013), and the consequent decrease of dissolved oxygen concentrations (Yin et al., 2004; Breitburg et al., 2009). Reduced oxygen levels in water negatively impacts the growth, reproduction, distribution, and survival of organisms and thus, accelerates the local pollution of the estuary (Mudge et al., 2007; Breitburg et al., 2009). Many water quality variables are diverse and site-specific for estuaries depending on impacting activities. Hence water quality characteristics vary for each estuary, however, water quality health categories can be determined based on monitoring data history and expert knowledge. Appendix A represents an example of water quality RQOs that were proposed for estuaries on the KZN coast, an example of some of the variables to consider for water quality (DWS, 2015). 3.3.2 Types of Water Quality Impacts 3.3.2.1 WWTW discharges Inputs of sewage and other organic wastes can exacerbate estuarine eutrophication problems by delivering excess nutrients and organic carbon to estuaries. Water hyacinth (alien invasive aquatic Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 35 plants) alter distribution of certain species in the estuary like seagrass, resulting in habitat changes or habitat loss. Sewage and organic waste may enter estuarine systems via various sources such as malfunctioning septic systems, stormwater, domestic wastewater discharges, industrial effluents, farmlands, mariculture, wildlife, livestock, and fish processing operations, dredged materials, marinas, and other sources. Hypoxia and anoxia of estuarine and shallow coastal marine environments have increased worldwide over the past 50 years largely due to anthropogenic activities (Diaz, 2015). Pathogens (bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and helminths) increase in estuaries receiving sewage wastes, and in these polluted waters, they pose a health risk to swimmers and humans consuming contaminated shellfish. Emerging pathogens and/or Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) including endocrine disruptors emanating from pharmaceutical industries enter the systems from WWTWs and contribute to accumulative impacts on both human and ecological health. Consumption of raw, viral-tainted shellfish can cause hepatitis and serious gastroenteritis. Pathogenic bacteria in estuaries are particularly threatening to human health. For example, Vibrio cholerae causes cholera- like infection (diarrhoea, dehydration, and vomiting), and other pathogenic bacteria (Shigella spp. and Salmonella typhi) are responsible for dysentery and typhoid. Escherichia coli causes gastroenteritis and other maladies (Kennish et al., 2017). 3.3.2.2 Effluent discharge from industries, surface, and agricultural and stormwater runoff Chemical pollutants are trapped in the bottom sediments of estuarine and coastal marine habitats, particularly near densely populated metropolitan regions and other urbanized places (Kennish, 2017). Chemical pollutants accumulate in bottom sediments because many of them are particle reactive and settle to the floor of the estuary. Some chemical pollutants gather in high concentrations in estuarine organisms in the estuarine environment. The main delivery systems into estuaries include farming and urban runoff, sewage and industrial waste, river inflow, and air deposition (Kennish, 2015b). The main chemical groups found in estuaries are metals, halogenated hydrocarbons, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Kennish, 2017); in addition, CECs are an emerging concern emanating from agricultural runoff. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are another common pollutant found in estuarine settings around the world and they originate from the combustion of fossil fuel, and oil spills. Other known impacts are as follows: • Increased temperature in the receiving waters. • Bio-accumulation in fish, which we then ingest. The encroachment of sugarcane and banana crops (either planted lawfully or unlawfully) within the floodplains or riparian areas of estuaries causes impacts of pollution, water consumption and increase of nutrient levels. The main fertilizers that are used for used are nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus which add excess nutrients which are be absorbed by the plants, or flow into water resources and promote algae and hyacinth growth and ultimately eutrophication. 3.3.2.3 Climate Change Effects Increasing global temperatures, ascribed in large part to carbon dioxide emissions, have been linked to greater frequency and severity of damaging storms, coastal flooding, extreme droughts and extreme fires, and other hazards projected by climate forecasting models for the twenty-first century (IPCC, 2007). Extreme climate events and ongoing sea-level rise will be hazardous to coastal communities worldwide. Rising sea levels and coastal inundation will lead to significant loss of some coastal water resources, eliminating buffers and rendering coastal communities more vulnerable to extreme events. Human-induced climate change will also alter temperature and salinity regimes and the structure and function of biotic communities in estuaries (Kennish, 2017). Additionally, Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 36 configurations of estuarine basins will be modified as they widen and deepen, shifts will occur in nutrient and sediment supply as well as freshwater inputs, tidal prisms, and tidal ranges will change in many systems, and more frequent flooding and inundation of bayshore areas will pose hazards to vulnerable coastal communities worldwide (Kennish et al., 2008). 3.3.2.4 Deforestation Deforestation, clearing of land activities, overgrazing 3 and other poor farming practices 4 , as well as roadworks and mining activities, have increased soil erosion and sediment loads in rivers typically by a factor of 10 (Wolanski and Spagnol, 2000). Land clearing activities also increases peak flood flows by up to 30 percent and decrease dry season flows, thus exacerbating flooding in the wet season and droughts in the dry season. The effect of deforestation on estuaries is much more rapid in the tropics than in temperate zones because of intense rainfall. 3.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of effluent discharge from Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs) and Industries PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Undertake a desktop assessment to identify the WWTWs and industries whose effluent may negatively impact water quality of the estuaries (i.e., facilities situated as far away as 5km-10km away from an estuary). Step 2: Request historical water quality data and/or incident reports from relevant authorities (for water quality trends and patterns) Step 3: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., WWTWs and industries personnel, municipal as well as Provincial DWS and DFFE Offices) Step 4: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to pinpoint changes in land use (land-based catchment pollution that could be associated with changes in the quality of water) Step 5: Conduct ground truthing to identify visible signs of water quality changes such as extremely foul odour, dead fish, algal blooms and loss of biodiversity in the estuary Step 6: In undertaking the diagnostic assessment of the facility, consideration must be given to the below factors that tend to exacerbate the poor water quality: • The overall integrity and functioning of the WWTWs and industrial facilities; • Challenges associated with power cuts and failures; and • Land-based activities and the overall management of the catchment. Note: Malfunctioning pump stations may form part of direct pollutants to the watercourse and should be addressed as part of overall catchment management of pollution. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Planning Phase Step 1: Request local government officials (municipal as well as Provincial DWS/CMAs and DEA&DP Offices) and local NGOs community forums responsible to assist with identifying point sources of pollution to provide guidance on available regulatory processes. 3 Mass removal of crabs of all species in the system has resulted in the destruction of many pioneer trees. 4 Incorrect veld management, cultivation of steep areas and lack of contour furrows cause degradation and affect estuaries adversely. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 37 Step 2: Investigate other sources of pollution and water quality e.g., non-point sources of pollution. Assessment Phase Step 1: Undertake the following: o Analysis of the historical data (water quality) to see the trend and reference point. o Collect the actual final effluent water samples from the sources i.e., WWTW and industrial facility. o Collect monthly water quality samples from the resource i.e., Estuary: - 1 upstream of the WWTW and industrial facility discharge points. - 1 downstream of the WWTW & industrial facility discharge points. o Have samples analysed at an accredited laboratory to determine the water quality at the sources and resource, respectively. o The source and resource should be continuously monitored until the observed results from the analysis show improvement of water quality. Step 2: Undertake the following: o Compare laboratory-generated water quality data to the expected state for the identification of areas of concern. o Data analysis should be compared against the RQOs/RWQOs, or Aquatic Ecosystem Water Quality Standards if they have not yet been established for that catchment. PHASE 3: Identify & Define the Rehabilitation Objectives Define clear rehabilitation objectives based on information and data gathered in Phases 1 and 2. Common objectives are to manage and prevent poor effluent from WWTWs and industrial facilities from discharging into water resources i.e., estuaries. PHASE 4: Execution The following steps must be followed by practitioners for the rehabilitation of water quality activities: Step 1: Implement environmentally sustainable solutions through stakeholder engagements, communication within the water sector and between government departments sector, and between DFFE and other relevant government departments. Step 2: Undertake the following: o Ensure treatment of effluent from point sources prior to discharge; o Effluent which does not meet the discharge standards should be temporarily stored for further intervention and/or treatment; and o Monitor the effluent before discharge to ensure that it is of acceptable quality standard. Step 3: Undertake the following: o Implement surface water management around the WWTWs and industrial facilities; o Install cut-off trenches around the facilities to separate clean and dirty water and direct clean water back into natural drainage lines and the natural environment; and o The dirty water channels should be drained to an emergency holding dam for treatment. Step 4: Construct temporary berms along the estuary to prevent further offsite migration/discharge of effluent ending into the estuary. Step 5: Directives/notices should be issued to users who continue to operate non-compliant WWTW facilities. The primary response however should be to improve the efficacy and capacity of the WWTW, to avoid future substandard discharges. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 38 PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Step 1: • Undertake monthly water quality monitoring in the estuary depending on the volume discharge, local municipal by-laws, and the type of permit allowed; • Salinity intrusion – measured as TPCs for biota (fish, invertebrates, and microalgae) – Measurement should be done upstream of the estuary on a quarterly basis; • Continuously assess WWTWs and industrial facilities to assist with defining the quality of the water and extend to which treatment is required (records of up to a year are desirable to characterise the state of the of the facilities). Step 2: Monitoring parameters for WWTWs: • Nutrients, bacteria (E.coli or coliforms), pH, conductivity, suspended solids (SS), COD, NH3, NO3, Ortho phosphate (as P). Monitoring parameters for industries: • Metal (i.e., Chromium - Cr, Cadmium - Cd and Copper -Cu) concentrations and distributions at least once every 3-5 years for industrial facility; • Metal concentrations in tissues of fish/mussels (bio-accumulation) at least once every 3-5 years. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Note: The expected outcomes of monitoring and evaluation can be achieved through the use of available knowledge hubs on emerging pathogens and/or CECs emanating from pharmaceutical industries, agricultural runoff, WWTWs etc. Pesticide residues, transformation products and endocrine disruptors in estuaries should be considered for monitoring, where applicable. The outputs of monitoring should be reported to the relevant international frameworks i.e., SDGs, GBF. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and the specific stretch of an estuary where water quality improvement is visible or further required. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 3.4 HABITAT 3.4.1 Description Estuarine habitats are transitional tidal zones between the sea and land which are inhabited by macrophytes, and algae, that can withstand sporadic flooding (Lubke and Van Wijk, 1988; Adams et al., 2016). Habitat type is generally determined by salinity characteristics, topography, Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 39 geomorphology, and ecosystem energetics (Nichols and Biggs 1985; Kennish 1986; Van Niekerk et al., 2020). In South Africa, estuarine habitat types are recorded as the blue carbon habitats, being salt marshes, seagrasses and mangroves, the adjacent hydromorphic units (seeps and floodplains) sand, and mud banks, macroalgae, open surface water area, and adjacent freshwater habitats (Coetzee et al., 1997; Colloty et al., 1998; Adams et al., 1999; Fernandes and Adams, 2016). 3.4.2 Types of Habitat Impact 3.4.2.1 Habitat removal and alteration Estuaries are particularly susceptible to habitat transformation, removal, degradation, and alteration caused by human activities. The construction of permanent structures on the waterfront for recreational and commercial use alters the habitat. Additionally, boat engine propellers and dredging activities have consequences on the habitat (Kennish et al., 2008; Kennish, 2017). Dredged material disposal at selected sites in estuarine basins causes longer-term alteration of habitat, albeit in restricted areas. The development of coastal watersheds has converted extensive natural habitats to compacted soils and impervious cover that decrease the infiltration of rainwater while increasing runoff, erosion, and nonpoint source pollution to estuarine water bodies. Changes in land use and land cover in these developed areas frequently result in higher nutrient and sediment loads, which have an impact on the water and sediment quality of estuaries (Arnold and Gibbons, 1996). Furthermore, habitat alteration can also be attributed to change in baseflows (more freshwater input into the system as a result of WWTW) - change in the ecosystem from marine dominated to freshwater - leading to a loss of critical habitats, where they had been previously found e.g. seagrass habitat loss in upper to middle reaches. 3.4.2.2 Alien Invasive Species Introduced organisms that invade the water body can have a major impact and negative on the ecosystem. Introduced and/or invasive species can be a danger to the stability and biodiversity of an estuarine ecosystem. In cases where native controls are lacking, these species can have a significant competitive advantage, often rapidly dominating plant, or animal communities. Invasive species can be a danger to the stability and biodiversity of an estuarine ecosystem. The food web structure is commonly disrupted, and native species may be displaced or greatly reduced in abundance. The introduction or invasion of exotic species is expected to increase in the future due to an expanding world population, the effects of climate change, and greater shipping and other human activities at sea and in estuaries. These changes will likely promote additional ecological disruption. 3.4.2.3 Sand mining Both sand mining and dredging have significant negative physical, chemical, and biological impacts on estuaries. These impacts result in habitat destruction, and elevated turbidity levels, which reduces light penetration in the water environment, adversely affecting the phytoplankton aquatic vegetation (Cabrita et al., 2020). 3.4.2.4 Dredging activities Many estuaries experience active erosion of banks due to dredging activities, which threaten infrastructure and endangers the lives of people and animals. Response actions should target not only the site where the erosion is taking place but also consider possible interventions that can reduce or mitigate the drivers of erosion. Erosion protection measures and bank stabilisation can include hard techniques, soft techniques, or a combination of both. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 40 3.4.2.5 Climate change Floods are extreme events that can rapidly alter water and habitat quality in receiving estuaries. Major floods transport significantly more sediment and nutrients than regular freshwater flows and can have substantially different effects on fish communities in estuaries and coastal bays (Montagna et al., 2012). Heavy rainfall and rapid drainage of large volumes of water and sediment from catchments into rivers and estuaries can quickly change estuarine water quality. As such, fish, prawns, and other organisms in receiving estuaries and bays can be positively or negatively affected by floods. Immediate and short-term effects (occurring hours to days after flood initiation) include the mortality of sessile organisms, such as bivalves, from sediment smothering or low salinity and mortality of mobile organisms by stranding (Anderson et al., 2004, Duggan et al., 2014). 3.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat Scenario 1: Control and Management of Alien and Invasive Vegetation PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the areas infested by alien and invasive vegetation. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Utilize tools such as Google Earth/ Pro /Google Earth Engine/Sentinel, ensuring the use of high spatial resolution (<10 m) satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to identify the areas affected. Step 4: Using information obtained from Google Earth satellite images and Remote Sensing, describe in detail areas identified that are affected by alien invasive vegetation. Consider including the following in the description: o Step 4.1: Visual description of the areas affected and a ground assessment of the areas affected. o Step 4.2: Is the affected area at a catchment, sub-catchment, or quaternary scale? o Step 4.3: Is the area affected at a localized non-localized scale? o Step 4.4: Describe the extent of the infestation of the affected area. o Step 4.5: Describe the conditions upstream or downstream of the affected area including the CEC’s. Step 4: Based on all the above information acquired, make an informed decision in terms of the type of habitat types of alien invasive species vegetation affecting your area of concern. Two habitat types of alien vegetation are dealt with, namely: o Riparian and/or aquatic; and o Landscape/terrestrial. Other examples of known aquatic species include floating macrophytes such as Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth), Pistia stratoites (water Lettuce), and the new emerging species, Salvinia minima (common salvinia) amongst others, and submerged species such as Myriophyllum spicatum (spiked water milfoil), Egeria densa (dense water weed) and Vallisneria spiralis (tapeweed) amongst others. Landscape/Terrestrial invasive plants can further be categorized into the following growth forms, namely: o Sprouting trees o Non-sprouting trees Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 41 o Shrubs o Cacti o Herbaceous o Grass o Creepers o Aquatic weeds PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment The below is a summarised list of steps to be followed during the planning and assessment phase of alien and invasive vegetation clearing 5,6 : • Identify priority alien and invasive plant species for control. • Identify sensitive indigenous vegetation that should be protected during alien and invasive plant clearing operations. • Mark individual trees or stands of vegetation to guide workers on site during alien and invasive alien plant clearing and prevent accidental environmental contamination. Danger tape or paint markings can be used for marking or utilise mapping tools such as ArcGIS mapping and monitoring. • Identify areas that should be protected from disturbance activities– in some areas (e.g., fynbos renosterveld and biocontrol reserves) • Identify the most appropriate clearing method or combination of methods, that take account of the species requiring control, the specific conditions of the site, ecotoxicity, environmental fate, and human health impacts of the herbicide, and the circumstances of the landowner. Consult the DFFE: Environmental Programme (EP) Pesticide Policy and toolkit. • Identify and obtain the necessary field and personal protective equipment (PPE) for the selected clearing method(s) according to the mode of action of the herbicide and exposure risk utilising the appropriate PPE matrix, including the most appropriate herbicides. (DFFE, 2022), • Identify training needs for clearing workers and supervisors (e.g., herbicide application, use of chain saws, etc.) • Identify approaches and areas for the disposal of cleared plant material, dependent on the hazardous waste classification of the material. • Consult the DFFE EP Pesticide Policy and Pesticide Toolkit for the decision support tool to ensure environmental contamination and chronic human health exposure and risks are mitigated or as the least lessened. • Prepare an accurate estimate of the financial costs of clearing and ensure that there are sufficient funds to achieve a successful outcome. PHASE 3: Identify & Define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation of alien and invasive vegetation must be defined and be clear at the start. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives 7 : • To create space in which to address bank erosion by managing eroding banks and sites and reaches where down-cutting or incising occurs in compliance with 11(1)(n)(ii) of NEM: BA. 5 Water Research Commission (WRC). 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. 6 DFFE: EP.2021. Environmental Programmes Pesticide Policy and Pesticides Toolkit. 7 WRC. 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 42 • To increase space for flood alleviation by clearing alien and invasive vegetation to increase the conveyance or the natural flow of water, noting restricted activities compliance with Section (65)(1) and environmental authorisations under Section (24) of NEMA. • To rehabilitate a more natural river flow regime by releasing trapped sediments and allowing erosion processes to restore natural river levels. • To prevent erosion as a result of channel confinement and bank undercutting. • To improve biodiversity by allowing the establishment / generation of natural indigenous riverine flora. • To revitalise the natural disturbance regime of a river and allow natural erosion of sediments that otherwise accumulate against encroaching alien and invasive plants. PHASE 4 – Execution: Alien and invasive vegetation control methods are divided into three main categories, control options, namely manual (or mechanical) control, chemical control, and biocontrol as illustrate in Figure 12. Integrated control methods or integrated plant species management (IPM) is the most effective method in various combinations, depending on the alien and invasive species, landscape and bioregion. The DFFE Pesticide Policy and associated EP species and pesticide list, 2021 8 , with the pesticide toolkit and decision support tool provides all the information needed, from the species, control methods and herbicides to ecotoxicity, environmental fate, human health exposure and risks, hazard criteria and acute and chronic toxicities. These three methods have been prescribed and comprehensively covered in the River Rehabilitation Guidelines/Manual developed by WRC 9 and adapted to align to the methods under NEM:BA and the EP Pesticides Policy. These methods must be supported by a Plant Species Plan developed by a landscape architect or botanist. Note: The chemical control method which entails the application of herbicides should be carried out in accordance with the stipulations of the Fertilisers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947 (Act 36 of 1947). PHASE 5 – Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Monitoring of rehabilitated areas must be undertaken to: • Ensure that treatment methods employed are adequate and effective to ensure that no additional measures are required. • Allow learning from past practices, so that ongoing alien and invasive plant clearing initiatives are constantly improving and are in accordance with seasonal changes. The following monitoring suggestions are recommended by WRC 10 : • A fixed-point photographic record should be compiled, showing the river in its affected reaches before, during and at regular time periods after initial alien and invasive clearing has taken place. The internals will depend on the herbicides mode of action, time taken to control the alien and invasive species and time taken for regrowth to appear. • Historical Google Earth images should be used over time, to provide a spatial record of alien and invasive clearing extent and effects. 8 DFFE: EP, 2021. Environmental Programmes Pesticide Policy for the Control of Alien and Invasive Species and associated documents. 9 WRC. 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. 10 WRC. 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 43 • Records should be kept of the time and costs required for each alien and invasive clearing intervention, and the approximate volume and life stage (e.g., seedling or mature plant) of the bulk of material removed on each occasion. Restricted activities as defined by NEM:BA include ‘The conveying, moving/removing or otherwise translocating any specimen of a listed invasive species’ as PROHIBITED for category 1a and 1b species. This information will allow quantification of the costs of alien and invasive control to show landscape changes resulting from alien and invasive removal and potentially inform decisions that are required around changes in clearing frequency, area, or approach. • Remote sensing and GIS. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 2: Rehabilitation of excessive habitat removal/alteration PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Acquire habitat and zonation maps from the relevant authority to identify the extent of habitat alteration. Step 2: Measure impacts using the essential biodiversity variables (EBVs), quantifying changes in extent and quality. Step 3: Identify the most impacted habitat(s) for example overutilisation of raw material (e.g., salt marshes, seagrasses, and mangroves in that particular estuary. Step 4: Undertake a desktop analysis to evaluate impacts (as a result of human activities such as historic agriculture activities, illegal recreational and tourism developments, mangrove harvesting/cutting and current sand mining operations). PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Assess to understand the conservation value of the estuary. An Estuary Protected Zone (as demarcated in the zonation map) would incorporate a variety of habitats (e.g., inter- and supra-tidal salt marsh, sandbanks, and mudbanks) and any species would be closed to all forms of human disturbance – specific to each estuary. Step 2: It is vitally important that a rehabilitation plan is developed which will articulate clear goal(s) and vision. It also needs to take into consideration the monitoring programme. Such plan should be used to set rehabilitation priorities with an estuary, using scientific criteria and socio-economic factors. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives Define clear rehabilitation objectives based on information gathered in Phases 1 and 2. Common objectives for habitat rehabilitation are to: • Protection of Indigenous estuarine vegetation; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 44 • Implement mitigation measures such as bank stabilisation; and • Rehabilitation of topographical sequences. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Consult all relevant authorities and ensure that you have acquired all the necessary information pertaining to the requirements and all the legal mandates are complied with. Step 2: Identifying funding sources and securing funding, including considering linking ecosystem service outcomes to beneficiaries and targeting funding opportunities linked to the ecosystem service outcomes. Step 3: Establishing project management systems and the technical approaches. Step 4: Undertaking rehabilitation, including the services of community volunteers, citizen science officials and Contractors. Step 5: Nature-based systems, geotextile mats and erosion control blankets are some of the essential examples of resilient and sustainable rehabilitation options that can be implemented. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Report Monitoring • Rehabilitation of estuarine habitats requires time and vigilance to allow the cumulative effects of smaller projects to emerge and larger-scale natural processes to re-establish themselves. • Once objectives for rehabilitation have been set, having a monitoring programme in place will assist with assessing the changes taking place in the estuary in response to measures undertaken to transform that particular estuary. • It is, therefore, important that monitoring be started as soon as this phase/task commences. The monitoring programme should be developed during the assessment phase. • Monitoring parameters and frequency for Habitats and Geomorphology are as follows: o Suspended sediment concentration – Monthly o Sediment Quality – Annually o Riparian Vegetation/Habitat – Annually • Monitoring parameter and frequency for Instream Habitat/ Hydrology is as follows: o The water column habitat not to be severely reduced for longer than 3 months at a time. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objective. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; and • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Scenario 3: Estuary Mouth Breaching Estuary mouth breaching is estuary specific. Natural breaching will always remain the preferred option for breaching. There are two types of artificial beaching, Planned artificial breaching and Emergency breaching (e.g., for ecological benefits and to avoid the danger of flooding). Artificial breaching is not Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 45 the solution to water quality problems (e.g., low oxygen levels). Thus, water quality problems should be fixed at the source. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Describe the catchment area or estuary of concern. Consider the ecosystem type and natural phases of the estuarine mouth state. Step 2: Use tools such as Google Earth/Engine/Sentinel, satellite imagery, GIS, and Remote Sensing to identify estuaries that are affected by sand berms depriving freshwater flow. Step 3: Identify and describe water obstruction on the watercourse that might hinder the natural breaching of the mouth. Step 4: Develop an understanding of sediment dynamics using relevant tools. Step 5: Determine whether a planned or emergency breaching is required. PHASE 2.1: Planning and Assessment (Planned Breaching) Step 1: Consult relevant authorities (municipal, conservation body as well as Provincial DWS and DEA&DP Offices. Step 2: At desktop level, employ remote sensing to assess the extent of the problem as well as estuarine field surveys. This activity needs to be done in conjunction with information from Step 1 of Phase 1 to avoid duplication of efforts. Step 3: Assess whether impacts are due to natural or anthropogenic factors using estuarine indices. Step 4: Determine estuarine conditions, which will provide an indication of the extent and type of rehabilitation that is needed for the estuary. There are different indices that are employed at various levels of aggregation, that is, estuary ecosystem condition indicators, estuary health index and national estuarine ecosystems condition index (Van Niekerk et. al, 2020). PHASE 2.2: Planning and Assessment (Emergency Breaching) Note: While breaching should be conducted according to a Mouth Management Plan (MMP) in support of an Estuarine Management Plan (EMP), some of the general breaching principles may be waivered under emergency conditions to ensure practical breaching. Step 1: A written request to breach, in terms of NEMA Section 30A should be directed to the Provincial Departments (DEA&DP) Environmental Impact Assessment units. The request should be accompanied by photographs of the status quo of the estuary. Box 1 Planned Breaching • Planned breaching is undertaken when the estuary experiences high water levels or at the frequency that is necessary for the protection of infrastructure and ecosystem functioning. • Requires the approval of a Maintenance Management Plan with the input of a specialist Estuarine Scientist. • Conducted periodically i.e., every two years or less. Box 2 Emergency Breaching • Emergency breaching is undertaken due to conditions that develop when an estuary mouth is closed/constricted and severe rainfall occurs in the catchment causing a large flood. • Triggers NEMA: S30A Regulations. • Conducted once-off. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 46 Step 2: Where reasonably possible, a site inspection must be undertaken by the Provincial Departments (DEA&DP) to verify the information received. The inspection may consist of a team coordinated by the Provincial Departments (DEA&DP) which involves all the affected authorities and relevant specialists. Step 3: Once the status quo of the estuary has been confirmed by the Provincial Departments (DEA&DP) a decision/written directive regarding the commencement of the requested activity (i.e., emergency breaching) should be issued. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives Clearly define the objectives for estuary mouth breaching, which must be clear from the start. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • Maintain the estuarine biodiversity; • Prevent further causes ecological degradation; • Improve the overall functions of estuaries in line with the desired state in terms of extent and condition; and • Flood prevention. PHASE 4: Execution Note: Steps 1-4 below are applicable to Planned Estuary Breaching, while Step 3-4 below are applicable to Emergency Breaching. Step 1: • Develop a Mouth Management Plan (MMP) in support of the Estuarine Management Plan (EMP) 11 to provide information of the methods and mechanisms of breaching suitable to a specific estuary. • Consult the EMP if readily available for the estuary of concern. Step 2: Breaching should be conducted under the following conditions: • When the water level in the estuary is at the highest to ensure that maximum outflow on the falling tide can be achieved. • During periods of low waves to prevent estuary mouth closure. • At low tide to maximise outflow on the falling tide. Note: One should avoid breaching during times of storm or huge wave events specifically to prevent estuary mouth closure. Storm or huge wave events tend to push the sand up and close the estuary mouth approximately after 2 hours of breaching. Breaching should be undertaken at maximum water levels and just after high tide so that maximum outflow on the falling tide can be achieved. Step 3: The following steps needs to be followed: • Select the appropriate location for breaching, using historic images which can be accessed from local libraries. Consult relevant estuarine ecologists/coastal engineers if needed. 11 EMPs should be consulted in order to ensure that any activity is in alignment with the Management objectives contained within that particular estuary. If an Estuary Advisory Forum is in place, they should be consulted during planning phases. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 47 • Consider public safety, crowd control and animal mobility during breaching. Breaching should ideally be done in the late afternoon or early morning for safety reasons. • Excavated trenches should be reasonable in size depending on the size of the sand berm. The aim is to lose all the excess water in the estuary. • Excavated sand must be sent back to the ocean and not be left on the sides of the breached mouth. Note: The branch Oceans and Coasts of the DFFE is mandated with the responsibility for regulating the disposal of materials in the marine environment. Therefore, the relevant officials of the department should be consulted. Step 4: • Excavate a deep trench (about 2m in depth and 3-4m in width) before breaching to maximise outflow – unless site specific conditions dictate otherwise. • Sediment taken out would have to be moved to the ocean. PHASE 5: Monitoring and Evaluation Monitoring • Monitoring needs to focus on water levels and mouth observations. • Monitoring should be an ongoing activity that must be undertaken pre, during and post the breaching. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objective. 3.5 BIOTA 3.5.1 Description Biota/aquatic biota is described as the community of plants and animals with a biotic integrity, which reflects the health, community structure and distribution which is dependent on habitat (DWAF, 1999). Estuaries are important for fish reproduction by providing a nursery function for several juvenile fish species. Fishing is a crucial socio-economic activity for local communities as it plays a key role in tourism, livelihood activities and sustenance. 3.5.2 Types of Biota Impacts 3.5.2.1 Over-exploitation / Overfishing Overfishing is catching fish at a higher rate than which the fish can reproduce to replace what has been caught. The overfishing of fish populations leads to decreased supplies as well as changes in supplies in the food-web structure of estuaries. For example, the decrease in major fish populations may lead to an increase its prey species, which creates an imbalance in the ecosystem (Briggs, 2012). 3.5.2.2 Plastic Waste In estuarine and marine ecosystems, marine waste, particularly plastics, has become a global problem. The pervasive use of plastics together with the lack of degradation results in the pollution problem. Many organisms, particularly fish, turtles, birds, and mammals that consume some of the pollutants or are exposed to them, are at risk. Some organisms mistake the floating material for prey (Verster Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 48 and Hindrik, 2020). The ingestion of plastics and other marine debris can suffocate the animals or obstruct their digestive systems, causing death (Verster and Hindrik, 2020; Kennish, 2017). 3.5.2.3 Artificial Breaching / Mouth manipulations Estuaries provide valuable ecological, environmental, and economic services but severely degraded ecosystems cannot offer such services. Estuaries are also manipulated through releases from dams upstream, resulting in loss of natural timing, and volume of system flows. Frequent artificial breaching has serious implications and results in persistently low water levels that reduce the amount of aquatic habitat available for benthic macroalgae, invertebrates, fish and birds, and encourage the encroachment of reed beds into the open estuary (DEDEAT, 2020). 3.5.2.4 Sand mining Sand mining and dredging have significant physical, chemical, and biological impacts on estuaries. The impacts include the loss of plants and animals in the mined sand including the loss of habitat in the channel and on the banks and floodplain. These impacts also affect organisms (habitat diversity/type), resulting in elevated turbidity levels, which reduces light penetration in the water environment, adversely affecting the phytoplankton aquatic vegetation (Cabrita et al., 2020). 3.5.2.5 Pollution Impacts Artificial breaching can increase the impact of pollution as breaching allows fish or invertebrates near the mouth to escape to sea. The subsequent reduction in estuary water level can expose the remaining fauna to often even poorer water quality conditions post-breaching. This is especially the case in fish kills linked to WWTWs that also discharge/spill significant organic matter with a high oxygen demand. If the estuary water depth is reduced, the buffer between oxygen-depleting organic bottom material and the surface layer that can be oxygenated by wind is also reduced. A similar response can occur in eutrophic estuaries where low oxygen events are linked to high loads of decaying plant material (DEDEAT, 2020). 3.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota Scenario 1: Re-establishment of biota migratory routes Identified Impacts •Sand mining, dredging & dredging material disposal, in- stream infrastructure creating barriers and preventing biota migration •Over-exploitation / Overfishing •Water Quality Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 49 Scenario 2: Control and Management measures to prevent overfishing. Sand mining, dredging & dredging material disposal, in- stream infrastructure and sedimentation processes & patterns have the following impacts on biota: -Disrupts biota migration routes -Disturbs the spawning, feeding, dispersion and colonisation of biota -Changes the flow dynamics of the estuary IMPACTS Implementation of the following techniques/methods: -Estuary Mouth Breaching outlined under Scenario 3 for Habitat -Removal/rehabilitation of physical structures outlined under Scenario 1 for hydrology -Rehabilitation of activities relating to sand mining & dredging outlined under Scenario 1 for Geomorphology INTERVENTIONS Identified Impacts •Sandmining,dredging& dredgingmaterialdisposal,in- streaminfrastructure creatingbarriersand preventingbiotamigration •Over-exploitation / Overfishing •Water Quality Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 50 PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: Step 1: Describe the catchment area or estuary of concern. Step 2: Identify and describe fishing activities in the estuarine area. Step 3: Understand the community dynamics using relevant tools. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Consult relevant authorities (conservation body as well as Provincial DWS and DEA&DP Offices)in order to obtain buy-in from all stakeholders on develop a zonation map to clearly define the restrict areas and access points. Examples of areas to be included in the zonation maps are: o Restricted Areas - areas are commonly known as ‘No-Take’ areas, where the extraction and harvesting of any marine or plant life is not allowed; o Controlled Areas - areas are also known as ‘Open’ areas. In these areas you are allowed to fish, go diving, spear fish, scuba dive and whale watch given that you have a valid permit. Step 2: Identify potential Estuarine Protected Areas (EPA) for the conservation of overexploited linefish species. These areas must include the mouth regions and adjacent marine environment. Step 3: Establish sanctuary areas where threatened invertebrate and floral species occur. Step 4: Reduce fishing effort by controlled access or increased access costs. Overfishing impacts are as follows: -Eradication of marine and coastal life -Financial losses for smaller scale fisherman and their families -Loss of a food source for poorer coastal communities IMPACTS Implementation of the following techniques/methods: -Implement sustainable fishing methods such as hook and lining -Apply strict regulations/by-laws on fishing techniques/methods -Raise awareness on appropriate fishing methods through education, training and sharing of knowledge INTERVENTIONS Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 51 PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives Clearly define the objectives to prevent overfishing, which must be clear from the start. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phases 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • Prevent over exploitation of fish; • Reduce fishing pressure on the estuarine system; • Maintain the estuarine biodiversity; • Prevent causes of ecological degradation; and • Improve the overall functions of estuaries. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Implement sustainable fishing methods and promote alternatives to consumptive exploitation. This can include by is not limited to the following: o Catch and release fisheries; o Control access to bait collecting areas; and o Rotate bait collection areas to be on an annual basis to allow for recovery. Step 2: Implement strict regulations/by-laws on fishing techniques/methods to reduce overfishing. This can include by is not limited to regulations/by-laws prohibiting the following: o Capture of linefish species (e.g., grunter) using cast nets, seine nets, gill nets and traps; o Collection of mud prawn, sand prawn, bloodworm, pencil bait and tapeworm during night hours; o Harvesting of juvenile fish; o Collection ornamental fish; and o Capture of fish (irrespective of methods) during mouth breaching events in temporarily open/closed systems. Step 3: Apply and implement zonation, through consultation with all Interested and Affected Parties (IAPs), of estuaries for recreational and subsistence fishing activities and non-consumptive activities to reduce user conflict. Step 4: Implement holistic approach to estuarine management (i.e., incorporate issues related to the catchment and adjacent terrestrial and marine environments). Step 5: Promote estuarine awareness and instil a feeling of social responsibility towards estuaries through advertising and marketing and education of managers, user groups and the general public. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring • Monitor key indicators and implement effective monitoring programmes dedicated to individual species. Undertake directed research aimed at stock status and sustainable yields. • Monitoring parameters and their frequencies are as follows: o Fish – FRAI – Annually o Birds, benthic invertebrates and mammals - Annually o Microalgae (phytoplankton and microphyto-benthos)/ Diatoms– Quarterly after every 3- months) • Enforce, through compliance monitoring, existing legislation under the Marine Living Resources Act (MLRA) e.g., permits, catch restrictions, and use of cast nets. Penalties and convictions need to be severe and be implemented. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 52 Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objective. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 53 4. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD The Estuarine Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed to address characteristics of watercourses, namely hydrology, hydrodynamics, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota through a phased approach. Below is a summarised list of recommendations for users to consider when implementing the guidelines: • In the Diagnostic Phases of all the rehabilitation scenarios in the guidelines, the EMPs and RDM outputs (Reserve, Classification, and RQOs) should be consulted to establish estuary status in terms of any targets that have been set to ensure site-specific rehabilitation measures are put in place per estuary. • When setting the objectives of all rehabilitation scenarios one should consider the National Biodiversity Assessment (2018) recommendations on the Ecological Category of estuaries. Stakeholders may have an improvement vision for the estuary specified in the Estuary EMP, and as a result, to align with the Vision, the desired classification of the resource may be a higher Ecological Category towards which the Estuary would be managed. • Estuary Management Plans should be put in place, if not already available, to ensure estuary- specific management targets as each estuary has unique characteristics. The EMP should be consulted, and any rehabilitation management plans should align with targets and priorities to enhance the EMP. Such an EMP should detail information relating to rehabilitation zones and priority rehabilitation activities. • The activities undertaken within estuaries that are demarcated as conservation zones may be controlled either via local by-laws or in certain instances by national legislation, the Integrated Coastal Management Act, the Sea Shore Act, NEMA and its associated EIA regulations, and CARA” • There are currently no by-laws in local authorities that addresses the quality of storm water that goes into the estuaries. Contaminated urban runoff is one of the biggest sources to pollution of estuaries. Therefore, Water Services Authorities (WSAs) should consider developing such by-laws. • For all characteristics of watercourses, rehabilitation monitoring activities specific to each estuary should be included in the EMP and authorities are to ensure that they are prioritised and included in annual operational plans. • Compliance, monitoring and enforcement must be strengthened in terms of human resources and capacity for all rehabilitation work to be undertaken. The regulatory mechanisms should be implemented at both estuary and catchment level and be sufficiently variable to cater to the uniqueness of each estuary in terms of its combination of biodiversity, use value, threats, and socio-economic context. • Regulation at the catchment level, regarding water quantity and quality and overall catchment management should be supported. Thus, a combination of regulatory mechanisms is advisable. • An integrated alien plant management program should be developed – this should align with the control plans already developed for the estuaries. o Follow up treatment should be done repeatedly; this is because some alien species are difficult to eradicate; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 54 o If chemical eradication method is to be applied for eradication of alien trees, it is recommended that environmentally friendly chemicals or other suitable control methodologies are applied; o Working for Water Programme could assist by prescribing specific methods that can be used to eradicate infested areas for rehabilitation, where possible. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 55 REFERENCE LIST Adams, J. B., Veldkornet, D., & Tabot, P. 2016. Distribution of macrophyte species and habitats in South African estuaries. South African Journal of Botany. 107: 5–11. Alexakis, D. 2011. Assessment of water quality in the Messolonghi–Etoliko and Neochorio region (West Greece) using hydrochemical and statistical analysis methods. Environ. Monit. Assess. 182: 397–413. Arnold, C.L. and Gibbons, C.J. 1996. Impervious surface coverage: the emergence of a key environmental indicator. J Am Plan Assoc. 62:243–258. Andersen, J.H., Halpern, J.H., Korpinen, B.S., Murray, S., Reker, C.J. 2015. Baltic Sea biodiversity status vs. cumulative human pressures. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 161: 88-92. Barbie, E.D. Hacker, S.D. Kennedy, C. Koch, E.W. Stier, A. Silliman, B.R. 2011. The Value of Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystem Services. Ecological Monographs. 81(2): 169-193. Berkes, F., and C. Folke. 1998. Linking social and ecological systems: management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Borja, A., M. Elliott, M., Snelgrove, P., Austen, M., Berg, T., Cochrane, S., Carstensen, S., Roberto, D., Greenstreet, S., Heiskanen, A.-S., Lynam, C., Mea, M., Newton, A., Patrício, J., Uusitalo, L., Uyarra, M., Wilson, C. 2016b. Bridging the gap between policy and science in assessing the health status of marine ecosystems. Frontiers in Marine Science 3:175. Breitburg, D. L., Hondorp, D. W., Davias, L. A. and Diaz, R. J. 2009. Hypoxia, nitrogen, and fisheries: integrating effects across local and global landscapes. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 1: 329–349. Brockmeyer, B. and Spitzy, A. 2011. Effects of sugar cane monocultures on origin and characteristics of dissolved organic matter in the Manguaba lagoon in northeast Brazil. Org. Geochem. 42: 74–83. Cabrita, M.T., Brito, P., Caçador, I. and Duarte, B. 2020. Impacts of phytoplankton blooms on trace metal recycling and bioavailability during dredging events in the Sado estuary (Portugal). Marine environmental research, 153, p.104837 Celliers, L., Breetzke, T., Moore, L. and Malan, D. 2009. A User-friendly Guide to South Africa’s Integrated Coastal Management Act. The Department of Environmental Affairs and SSI Engineers and Environmental Consultants. Cape Town, South Africa. Coetzee, J.C., Adams, J.B. & Bate, G.C., 1997. A botanical importance rating of selected Cape estuaries. Water SA. 23: 81–93. Colloty, B.M., Adams, J.B. & Bate, G.C. 1998. The use of a botanical importance rating system to assess changes in the flora of the Swartkops estuary. Water SA. 26: 171–180. Costa, C.R., Costa, M.F., Dantas, D.V. and Barletta, M. 2018. Interannual and Seasonal Variations in Estuarine Water Quality. Frontiers in Marine Science. 5:301 Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). 1990. Great Brak River: Estuary Environmental Study concerning a management plan for the Wolwedans Dam and Great Brak River Mouth. CSIR Report EMA-C9036. Stellenbosch: CSIR Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism. DEDEAT. 2020. Protocol for requests to breach estuary mouths in Kwazulu-Natal. Mouth Maintenance Management Plans. Diaz, R.J. 2015. Anoxia, hypoxia, and dead zones. In: Kennish MJ (ed) Encyclopedia of estuaries. Springer, Dordrecht. pp 19–29. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 56 Donázar-Aramendía, I., Sánchez-Moyano, J.E., García-Asencio, I., Miró, J.M., Megina, C. and García- Gómez, J.C. 2020. Environmental consequences of dredged-material disposal in a recurrent marine dumping area near to Guadalquivir estuary, Spain. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 161: 111736. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). 2008. Water resource protection and assessment policy implementation process. Resource Directed Measures for protection of water resource: Methodology for the determination of the ecological water requirements for estuaries. Version 2.1 Pretoria: Department of Water Affairs. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). 2008. Resource Directed Measures for Protection of Water Resources: Methodologies for the determination of ecological water requirements for estuaries. Version 2. Pretoria. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2015. Classification of Water Resources and Determination of the Comprehensive Reserve and Resource Quality Objectives in the Mvoti to Umzimkulu Water Management Area: Volume 4: Estuary Resource Quality Objectives. Prepared by: Van Niekerk, Adams, Taljaard, Weerts. DWS Report: RDM/WMA11/00/CON/CLA/0615. Elliot, M. and McLusky, D.S. 2002. The need for definition in Understanding Estuaries. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 55: 815-827. Fernandes, M. and Adams, J.B. 2016. Quantifying the loss and changes in estuary habitats in the Umkomazi and Mvoti estuaries, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 107: 179-187 French, P.W. 2001. Coastal defences: Processes, Problems and Solutions. London: Routledge. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Karydis, M. and Kitsiou, D. 2013. Marine water quality monitoring: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 77: 23– 36. Kennish MJ. 1986. Estuarine ecology. Boca Raton, Florida, United States: CRC Press. Kennish, M.J., Livingston, R.J., Raffaelli, D. and Reise, K. 2008. Environmental future of estuaries. In: Polunin N (ed) Aquatic ecosystems: trends and global prospects. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 188–208. Lubke, R.A. & Van Wijk, Y. 1988. Estuarine plants. A Field Guide to the Eastern Cape Coast. The Grahamstown Centre of the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa, Grahamstown. pp.133-145. Meitzen, K.M., Doyle, M.W., Thoms, M.C., and Burns, C.E. 2013. Geomorphology within the interdisciplinary science of environmental flows. Geomorphology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.03.013 Moore, K.A., Shields, E.C., Parish, D.B. and Orth, R.J. 2012. Eelgrass survival in two contrasting systems: role of turbidity and summer water temperatures. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 448:247–258. Morant, P and Quinn, N. 1999. Estuaries of South Africa: Influence of Man and Management of South African Estuaries. PP 289-320. Mudge, S. M., Icely, J. D., and Newton, A. 2007. Oxygen depletion in relation to water residence times. J. Environ. Monit. 9: 1194–1198. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 57 Skowno, A.L.; Poole, C.J.; Raimondo, D.C.; Sink, K.J.; Van Deventer, H.; Van Niekerk, L.; Harris, L.R.; Smith-Adao, L.B.; Tolley, K.A.; Zengeya, T.A.; Foden, W.B.; Midgley, G.F. & Driver, A. 2019. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6362. National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), (Act No. 107 of 1998). 1998. Republic of South Africa. Government Gazette 19519. Government Printer, Cape Town. National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2021. Why Are Estuaries Important: Ecosystem Services. https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/training/econ-120-ecosystem- services.html National Water Act (NWA) (Act No. 36 of 1998). 1998. Republic of South Africa. Government Gazette 39299. Government Printer, Cape Town. National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS), Second Edition, 2013. Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP), 2018. Ready for the Future and Ahead of the Curve. Volume 1: Call to Action, Version 10.1. Department of Water and Sanitation, Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa Nichols, MM, Biggs, RB. 1985. Estuaries. p 77–186. In: Coastal Sedimentary Environments, 2nd edn. Davis RA. (Ed.) New York, United States: Springer-Verlag. Pritchard, D. W. (1967). What is an estuary: a physical viewpoint. American Association for the Advancement of Science 83: 3–5. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2014. South Africa’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. SANBI. 2019. The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries. Thayer, G. W., T. A. McTigue, R. J. Bellmer, F. M. Burrows, D. H. Merkey, A. D. Nickens, S. J. Lozano, P. F. Gayaldo, P. J. Polmateer, and P. T. Pinit. 2003. Science-based restoration monitoring of coastal habitats, volume one: A framework for monitoring plans under the Estuaries and Clean Waters Act of 2000 (Public Law 160-457). NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series. https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/data_reports/science-basedrestoration-monitoring- of-coastal-habitats-volume-one-aframework-for-monitoring-plans-under-the-estuaries-and- cleanwaters-act-of-2000-public-law-160-457/. Accessed 12 Dec 2023 Turpie, J.K., Taljaard, S., Adams, J.B., Van Niekerk, L., Forbes, N., Weston, B., Huizinga, P., Whitfield, A. 2012. Methods for the determination of the Ecological Reserve for estuaries. Version 3. Water Research Commission and Department of Water Affairs, Pretoria. Turpie, J.K., Taljaard, S., Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J., Wooldrige, T., Cyrus, D., Clark, B. and Forbes, N. 2013. The Estuary Health Index: a standardised metric for use in estuary management and the determination of ecological water requirements. WRC Report No. 1930/1/12. 90pp. UNEP-DTU 2017. Climate Change Adaptation Technologies for Water: Dune construction and rehabilitation. Van Niekerk, L. and Turpie, J.K. (eds). 2012. 2011: Technical Report. Volume 3: Estuary Component. CSIR Report Number CSIR/NRE/ECOS/ER/2011/0045/B. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Stellenbosch. Available at: http://bgis.sanbi.org/nba/project.asp. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 58 Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J.B., Bate, G.C., Forbes, N., Forbes, A., Huizinga, P., Lamberth, S.J., MacKay, F., Petersen, C., Taljaard, S., Weerts, S., Whitfield, A.K. and Wooldridge, T.H. 2013. Country-wide assessment of estuary health: An approach for integrating pressures and ecosystem response in a data limited environment. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 130: 239-251. Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J.B., Lamberth, S.J., MacKay, F., Taljaard, S., Turpie, J.K., Weerts, S., Raimondo, D.C. (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: Technical Report. Volume 3: Estuarine Realm. CSIR report number CSIR/SPLA/EM/EXP/2019/0062/A. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. Report Number: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6373. Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J.B., James, N.C., Lamberth, S.J., MacKay, C.F., Turpie, J.K., Rajkaran, A., Weerts S.P. & Whitfield A.K. 2020. An Estuary Ecosystem Classification that encompasses biogeography and a high diversity of types in support of protection and management, African Journal of Aquatic Science, 45 (1-2): 199-216. Verster, C. and Bouwman, H. 2020. Land-based sources and pathways of marine plastics in a South African context. South African Journal of Science. 116: 1-9 Western Cape, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (DEA&DP). 2019. Western Cape Estuarine Management Framework and Implementation Strategy (EMFIS): Best Practice Activity Guidelines V.1 (October 2019). Western Cape, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (DEA&DP). 2021. Bank Erosion in the Berg River Estuary: Causes and Concerns. Report prepared for DEA&DP Prepared by: Anchor Research & Monitoring (Pty) Ltd in association with Zutari. Whitfield, A.K. and Kok, H.M. 1992. Recruitment of juvenile marine fishes into permanently open and seasonally open estuarine systems on the southern coast of South Africa. Ichthyological Bulletin of the J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology 57, 1-39. Whitfield, A.K., Adams, J.B., Bate, G.C., Bezuidenhout, K., Bornman, T.G., Cowley, P.D., Froneman, P.W., Gama, P.T., James, N., Mackenzie, B., Riddin, T., Snow, G.C., Strydom, N.A., Taljaard S., Terörde, A.I., Theron, A.K., Turpie, J.K., Van Niekerk, L., Vorwerk, P.D. and Wooldridge, T.H. 2008. ‘A multidisciplinary study of a small, temporarily open/closed South African estuary, with particular emphasis of the influence of mouth state on the ecology of the system’, African Journal of Marine Science 30: 453-473. Worm, B., et al. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314:787–790. Yin, K., Lin, Z. and Ke, Z. 2004. Temporal and spatial distribution of dissolved oxygen in the Pearl River Estuary and adjacent coastal waters. Cont. Shelf Res. 24: 1935–1948. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 59 APPENDICES Appendix A --- Document Separator --- Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 ii Published by The Department of Water and Sanitation Private Bag X313 Pretoria, 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: (012) 336 7500/ +27 12 336 7500 Fax: (012) 336 6731/ +27 12 336 6731 Copyright Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner without full acknowledgment of the source. This report should be cited as: Department of Water and Sanitation, 2025. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams. Report 2.5. Sources Directed Studies. Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523. Pretoria, South Africa Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 iii DOCUMENT INDEX REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR WATER RESOURCES REPORT SERIES REPORT TITLE DWS REPORT NUMBER 1. Project Planning Reports 1.1 Project Plan RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0120 1.2 Gap Analysis Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0220 1.3 Framework Document RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDC/0121 1.4 ToR for PSC members RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0221 1.5 Inception Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0321 1.6 Situation Assessment Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 2. Development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines 2.1 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 2.2 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0222 2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 2.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater resources RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 2.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 3. Implementation Report 3.1 Guidelines into Practice RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0423 4. Project Administration Reports 4.1 Project Close-out Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 4.1.1 Capacity Building 4.1.2 Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 iv DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL Authors: Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane, Dr Mampolelo Photolo, Ms Mmaphefo Thwala, Mr Samkele Mnyango, Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Contributors: Mr Pieter Ackerman, Mr Karl Bester Specialist Reviewers: Professor Paul Oberholster and Mr Walther van der Westhuizen Project Name: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 Report Version: Version 4.3 Date: August 2025 _________________________________________________________________________________ Department of Water and Sanitation Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Compiled by: ..................................................... Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane (Project Manager) Approved for DWS by: .................................................... Director: Sources Directed Studies Ms Tovhowani Nyamande (Project Leader) .................................................... Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Ms Ndileka Mohapi Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DWS Project Administration Committee (PAC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Sub- Technical Task Team (Sub-TT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Technical Task Team (TTT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 vi Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Project Management Committee (PMC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Project Leader (Chairperson) Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 vii Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Ms Caroline Shai Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 viii Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Project Steering Committee Members (PSC) DWS Representative Ms Mohapi Ndileka Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Chairperson Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 ix Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Thembisa Torch Assistant Director: DWS: Berg-Olifants Proto- CMA Member Ms Lebogang Matlala Director: DWS Water Resource Classification Member Ms Anet Muir Chief Director: Water Use Compliance & Enforcement Member Ms Barbara Weston Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Yakeen Atwaru Director: Reserve Determination Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Water Sector Representatives Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Dr Andrew Wood Principal Scientist: SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd Member Mr Lehlohonolo Phadima General Manager: Scientific Services: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 x Dr Eddie Riddell Water Resources Manager: South African National Parks Member Mr Ntsikelelo Wiseman Dlulane Acting Chief Executive Officer: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Phil McLean Task Manager: Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Pollution and Chemicals Directorate Member Mr Stanley Tshitwamulomoni Director: Water Sources and Wetlands Conservation: DFFE Member Dr Dhiraj Rama Executive Director: Association of Cementitious Material Producers (ACMP) Member Mr Kobus Fell Advisor: National Water Monitor Non-Profit Company Member Mr Donovan Gillman President: Institute for Landscape Architecture in South Africa Member Mr Reginald Mabalane Policy Analyst: Mineral Council of South Africa Member Ms Busisiwe Mahlangu Control Environmental Officer: Inkomati-Usuthu Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Sihle Ximba Acting Water Care Manager: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Bonani Madikizela Research Manager: Water Research Commission Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Hermien Oberholzer Senior Principal Engineer: Anglo American Platinum Member Ms Stephinah Mudau Head Environment: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Mr Matome Makwela Senior Policy Analyst: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Ms Jenifer Zungu Project Leader: South African National Biodiversity Institute Member Mr Douglas Macfarlane Chief Scientist: Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services Member Mr Andre Beegte Implementation Manager – Wetlands: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Debbie Muir Biodiversity Officer Control: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Kate Snaddon Senior Consultant: Freshwater Consulting Member Dr Yolandi Schoeman Postdoctoral Scientist and Ecological Engineer: University of the Free State Member Dr Chantel Petersen Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Dr Vhahangwele Masindi Research and Development Manager: Magalies Water Member Ms Kim Hodgson Scientist – Water Quality Management: Umgeni Water Member Ms Lilian Siwelane Control Environmental Officer: DWS: North- West, Institutional Management Member Mr Mashudu Rafundisani Senior Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Mpho Zwane Senior Specialist - Water Quality Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Esmeralda Ramburran Deputy Director - Operational Support and Planning: Department of Forestry Fisheries and the Environment Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xi Mr Norman Nokeri Manager - Strategy and Planning: Lepelle Northern Water Member Mr Pule Makena Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Member Mr Reveck Hariram Senior Water Quality Advisor: Rand Water Member Mr Theolin Naidoo Senior Scientist: Institute of Natural Resources NPC Member Mr Wiseman Ndlala Senior Specialist - Water Quality and Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Member Mr Roger Bills Senior Curator: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) Member Mr Fazel Sheriff Chief Engineer: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Mr Themba Dladla Provincial Programme Manager: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Dr Kobus Du Plessis Managing Director: Envirokonsult Scientific Services (Pty) Ltd Member Ms Mulala Sundani Environmental Impact Management: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) Member Dr Elizabeth Day Director: Liz Day Consulting (Pty) Ltd Member Dr Heidi van Deventer Principal Researcher: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Member Mr Lubabalo Luyaba Specialist – Water and Sanitation: South African Local Government Association Member Mr Vhangani Silima Coordinator Environmental Rehabilitation: Rand Water Member Ms Phumelele Sokhulu Environmental Officer: Umgeni Member Mr Robert Siebritz Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Mr Eddy Tshabalala Control Environmental Officer: Sedibeng District Municipality Member Mr Rodney February MEL Coordinator: World Wide Fund for Nature Member Mr Ruwen Pillay Control Environmental Officer: Estuaries Management: DFFE Member Ms Yolokazi Galada Control Environmental Officer: DFFE Member Mr Stephen Midzi Manager: Biodiversity Conservation SANParks Member Dr Thakane Ntholi Manager: Water and Environment: Council for Geoscience Member Specialist Reviewers Prof Paul Oberholster Dean of Natural and Agricultural Science - University of the Free State Mr Walther van der Westhuizen Project Manager – DWS Construction Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xii LIST OF ACRONYMS AMD BOD CARA CD: WEM CMAs COD DALRRD DCOGTA DFFE DSEP DSRP DWAF DWS ECA EIA EMSIP EMSSA EWRs FRAI GAI GBF GIS HAI HDRP HSRS IAPs ICOLD IHI IWQM IWRM MIRAI MAP MAR MWM Acid Mine Drainage Biochemical Oxygen Demand Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Catchment Management Agencies Chemical Oxygen Demand Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment Dam Safety Evaluation Programme Dam Safety Rehabilitation Programme Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Department of Water and Sanitation Environment Conservation Act Environmental Impact Assessment Eutrophication Management Strategy into Practice Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa Ecological Water Requirements Fish Response Assessment Index Geomorphology Assessment Index Global Biodiversity Framework Geographic Information System Hydrology Assessment Index Hartbeespoort Dam Integrated Biological Remediation Programme Hydrosuction Sediment Removal Systems Invasive Alien Plants International Commission on Large Dam Index of Habitat Integrity Integrated Water Quality Management Integrated Water Resource Management Macro-invertebrate Response Assessment Index Mean Annual Precipitation Mean Annual Runoff Mine Water Policy NEMA NEM: BA NEM: WA NEM: PAA NFA NFEPAs National Environmental Management Act National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act National Environmental Management: Waste Act National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act National Forest Act National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas NHRA NPA National Heritage Resources Act National Parks Act NWA National Water Act NWRS National Water Resource Strategy NW&SMP PCOs PAI POM RMGs RQOs National Water and Sanitation Master Plan Pest Control Operators Physico-Chemical Assessment Index Particulate Organic Matter Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Resource Quality Objectives RDM RWQOs Resource Directed Measures Resource Water Quality Objectives Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xiii SACOLD SANBI SASS SAV SESs South African National Committee on Large Dams South African National Biodiversity Institute South African Scoring System Submersed Aquatic Vegetation Social-Ecological System SDCs SDS SDGs SWSAs VEGRAI WML WRC WULA WUL Sources Directed Controls Sourced Directed Studies Sustainable Development Goals Strategic Water Source Areas Vegetation Response Assessment Index Waste Management License Water Research Commission Water Use License Application Water Use License WWTWs Wastewater Treatment Works Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xiv GLOSSARY OF TERMS A dam, in terms of physical appearance, refers to the structural barrier that is constructed across a river or a valley ensure that water is prevented from flowing. In terms of the definition contained within the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), a watercourse means: • A river or spring; • A natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; • A wetland, dam, or lake into which, or from which, water flows; and • Any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse; and • A reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. IWRM takes into account the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. Social-Ecological System (SES) are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). Baczyme is a biological solution for sewage waste, septic tanks, and pit toilets. The product contains organic bacteria that decomposes sewage waste into two main components, water, and carbon-dioxide. Small dam – wall height lower than 12m; Big dam – wall height more than 30m Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets (i.e., GBF Goal A target 2 for restoration of ecosystems). Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. River Eco-status Monitoring Programme (REMP) is a programme for monitoring the ecological conditions of the river ecosystems based on the drivers and responses in the river. REMP is aimed to establish the reference condition (usually a natural or close to natural condition) of the river or reach that will used to assess the temporal conditions of that river or reach with the consideration of both the biotic (instream and riparian biota) and abiotic (hydrology, geomorphology, and physico- chemical conditions) factors of that river. Weirs, also known as low-head dams, are small overflow-type dams commonly used to raise the level of a river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir, although some weirs have sluice gates, which release water at a level below the top of the weir. Spillway - the designed “overflow” section of the dam is called the spillway. Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) is the flow patterns (magnitude, timing, and duration) and water quality needed to maintain a riverine ecosystem in a particular condition. This term is used to refer to both the quantity and quality components. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xv Ecological Water Releases pertaining to specific low and high flows for maintaining ecological conditions within a specific ecological category, in the form of assurance rules for each selected EWR site. Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) are a numerical or descriptive (narrative) statement of the conditions which should be met in the receiving water resource, in terms of resource quality, in order to ensure that the water resource is protected. They might describe, amongst others, the quantity, pattern, and timing of instream flow; water quality; the character and condition of riparian habitat, and the characteristics and condition of the aquatic biota. Resources Directed Measures (RDMs) focus on the quality of the water resource itself, regarding it as an ecosystem rather than a commodity. RDMs comprise Classes, Reserve and RQOs as components. Catchment in relation to a watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, is defined as the geographical area from which any rainfall will drain into the watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, through surface flow to a common point or common points. This land area from which a river or reservoir is fed is also known as a drainage region, basin, or watershed. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plants and some microorganisms (e.g., cyanobacteria) that play an important role in the conversion of solar energy to chemical energy through a process known as photosynthesis. All oxygenic photosynthetic organisms use chlorophyll-α, which contributes to the green colour of most plants and algae but differ in accessory pigments like chlorophyll-β. Note: There are two types of chlorophyll: • Suspended chlorophyll which is related to algal cells in the water column; and • Benthic chlorophyll with is related to the literal zone of the dam (e.g. filamentous algae). Effluent is the municipal sewage or industrial wastewater (untreated, partially treated, or fully treated) that flows out of a wastewater treatment works, septic system, pipe, etc. Eutrophic is a state of an aquatic ecosystem rich in minerals and nutrients, very productive in terms of aquatic plant life and exhibiting increasing signs of water quality problems. Trophic status refers to the degree of nutrient enrichment of surface water resources and the associated amount of primary productivity that can be sustained. Eutrophication - (from the Greek “eutrophos” meaning "well-nourished") Is the process of over-enrichment of waterbodies with minerals and nutrients, which (at the right temperatures, substrate availability, flow velocity and light penetration) increasingly induce primary production, e.g., algal and macrophyte growth. Eutrophication can be regarded as either a natural aging process in waterbodies or an aging process that can be accelerated by anthropogenic activities. Monitoring - periodic or continuous surveillance or testing to determine the level of compliance with statutory requirements and/or pollutant levels in various media or in humans, plants, and animals. Mean annual runoff is the average volume of water that flows in a river per year (annum), expressed as cubic meters per annum. Diffuse pollution - (or “non-point source pollution”) Pollution that originates from wash- off over a relatively large area. Diffuse pollution sources can be divided into source activities related to either land or water use, including failing septic tanks, agricultural and improper animal-keeping practices, and urban and rural runoff. Non-point source pollution - See “Diffuse pollution.” Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xvi Point source pollution - pollutant loads discharged at a specific location by means of pipes, outfalls, or conveyance channels inter alia delivering wastewater from municipal and industrial Wastewater Treatment Works. Point sources can also include pollutant loads contributed by tributary. A reservoir on the other hand is a large waterbody that forms behind a dam to form an artificial lake. Resource Water Quality Objective (RWQOs) are the water quality component of the Resource Quality Objective. Are numeric and/or descriptive objectives, which address the physical, chemical and/or microbiological properties of waterbodies that should be met in receiving water resources to ensure that the water quality requirements of the recognised water users and the aquatic ecosystem are sufficiently protected. Resource Water Quality Objectives are not gazetted, per se. Runoff is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. Surface runoff replenishes groundwater and surface water resources as it percolates through soil profiles or moves into streams and rivers. Source: In water resource management, “source” refers to the source of an impact, usually on a water resource. The relationship between “Source” and “Resource” is similar to the relationships between “Cause” and “Effect” or “Aspect” and “Impact,” as per the ISO 14001 definitions. The “Resource” or the “water resource” is part of the receiving environment. Water quality - the biological, chemical, and physical conditions of a waterbody. It is a measure of a waterbody's ability to support beneficial water use. Wastewater is any water used from domestic, industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, which may contain physical, chemical, and biological pollutants. Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) are formally defined as natural source areas for water that supply disproportionately large volumes of water per unit area and that are considered of strategic significance for water security from a national planning perspective. Water from SWSAs feeds major dams and can be considered ecological infrastructure that works hand in hand with built infrastructure for delivering water. National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPAs) are strategic spatial priority areas or national network of freshwater ecosystem priority areas, including rivers, wetlands and estuaries required to meet conservation requirements for South Africa’s freshwater ecosystems and supporting sustainable use of water resources. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xvii CONTENTS DOCUMENT INDEX ..........................................................................................................................................III DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL .......................................................................................................................... IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... V LIST OF ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... XII GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................................................... XIV CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................. XVII LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... XVIII LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................ XIX EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. XX 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 DEFINITIONS OF LAKES AND DAMS .............................................................................................................. 1 1.3 DEFINITION OF WATERCOURSES ........................................................................................................... 4 1.4 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR LAKES AND DAMS 4 1.5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES ...................................... 4 1.5.1 Guiding Principles .......................................................................................................................................... 4 1.5.2 Approach ....................................................................................................................................................... 5 1.6 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................ 6 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................... 7 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................................................ 7 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................................... 7 2.2 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES AND STRATEGIES ...................................................................................... 9 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ...................................................................................................... 11 3.1. INTRODUCTION TO CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ................................................................ 11 3.2. LINK BETWEEN WATER RESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ............................. 12 4. IMPACTS CAUSING DEGRADATION OF LAKES AND DAMS .......................................................................... 13 5. GUIDELINES FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES ........................................................................... 15 5.1. HYDROLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 15 5.1.1. Description .................................................................................................................................................. 15 5.1.2. Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 15 5.1.2.1. Constructed weirs. .................................................................................................................................. 15 5.1.2.3. Water abstraction .................................................................................................................................. 17 5.1.2.4. Climate Change ...................................................................................................................................... 17 5.1.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Hydrology ................................................................................ 17 5.2. GEOMORPHOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 22 5.2.1. Description .................................................................................................................................................. 22 5.2.2. Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 23 5.2.2.1. Human-induced sedimentation .............................................................................................................. 23 5.2.2.2. Poor Land Use and Management including inappropriate interventions. ............................................... 23 5.2.2.3. Alien Invasive Species (i.e., Vegetation and fish) ..................................................................................... 23 5.2.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology ...................................................................... 24 5.3. WATER QUALITY .................................................................................................................................. 27 5.3.1. Description .................................................................................................................................................. 27 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xviii 5.3.1.1. Types of Impacts ..................................................................................................................................... 27 5.3.1.2. Discharges from Wastewater Treatment Works, Industries, and Mines ................................................. 27 5.3.1.3. Poor water quality attributed to ageing infrastructure. .......................................................................... 27 5.3.1.4. Eutrophication ........................................................................................................................................ 28 5.3.1.5. Salinisation ............................................................................................................................................. 28 5.3.1.6. Acidification ............................................................................................................................................ 29 5.3.1.7. Temperature changes ............................................................................................................................. 30 5.3.2. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality .......................................................................... 30 5.4. HABITAT .............................................................................................................................................. 34 5.4.1. Description .................................................................................................................................................. 34 5.4.2. Types of Habitat Impact .............................................................................................................................. 34 5.4.2.1. Sediment Trapping by dams. .................................................................................................................. 34 5.4.2.2. Habitat modification, degradation, and loss ........................................................................................... 35 5.4.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat .................................................................................... 35 5.4.4. Special considerations to be applied for the Rehabilitation of Habitat ........................................................ 39 5.5. BIOTA .................................................................................................................................................. 39 5.5.1. Description .................................................................................................................................................. 39 5.5.2. Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 40 5.5.2.1. Impediment impacts on migratory biota species. ................................................................................... 40 5.5.2.2. Impacts of alien species (animal and plant species) ................................................................................ 40 5.5.2.3. Loss of ecological connectivity for other biota like fish, hippo, crocodile, crustaceans ............................ 40 5.5.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota ........................................................................................ 41 5.5.4. Special considerations to be applied for the Rehabilitation of Biota ........................................................... 44 6. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD.............................................................................................. 45 REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 47 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Key differences between lakes and reservoirs ..................................................................... 2 Figure 2: Midmar Dam situated in Kwazulu-Natal Provincial ............................................................... 3 Figure 3: A spillway on the Metsi-Matsho Dam in the Free State Province ......................................... 3 Figure 4: The Ecological Water Requirements of the Reserve including drivers and responses Source: Beechie and Bolton, 1999 ..................................................................................................................... 12 Figure 5: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. .............................................................................................................................................................. 13 Figure 6: Natural and anthropogenic impacts on lakes and dams ..................................................... 14 Figure 7: A weir structure located within the Vaal WMA ................................................................... 15 Figure 8: Example of a compound sharp-crested weir in the Vaal River downstream of Vaal Dam 18 Figure 9: Example of a horizontal compound Crump weir without dividing walls in the Vaal River catchment (Mpumalanga).................................................................................................................... 18 Figure 10: Example of a V-shape Crump weir in the Mooi River near Potchefstroom (North-West Province) ............................................................................................................................................... 19 Figure 11: Rehabilitation methods/techniques available for control and management of affected weir due to floods events. ................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 12: Rehabilitation methods/techniques for disturbed vegetation. ........................................ 26 Figure 13: Examples of a canal structures. .......................................................................................... 37 Figure 14: A typical example of a fish ladder ...................................................................................... 41 Figure 15: Google Earth image depicting fish ladder. ......................................................................... 41 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xix LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Approach to be followed for development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for lakes and dams including the associated characteristics of watercourses. ................................................................... 6 Table 2: Authorities responsible for lakes and dams management and objectives of relevant acts. 7 Table 3: Alignment of policies and strategies with the rehabilitation of lakes and dams .................. 9 Table 4: Key biological, ecological, and physical parameters prescribed for monitoring ................. 43 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xx EXECUTIVE SUMMARY South African lakes and dams are predominantly impacted by eutrophication, salinisation, sedimentation/siltation, and acidification. In 2017, the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) developed the Integrated Water Quality Management (IWQM) Policies and Strategies, which identified the above-mentioned impacts as priority water quality issues that require intervention as a matter of urgency for lakes and dams. To address the impacts on South African lakes and dams, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) in the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) initiated a project in 2020 for the development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Resources (i.e., lakes and dams). The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM) to conduct sources directed studies to ensure water resource protection. The project aims to address the lack of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) for Lakes and Dams for ecological functioning which includes measures/interventions/best management practices relating to the rehabilitation of dams for hydrological and ecological connectivity which is currently not documented in the literature. It is for this reason that the DWS is developing Lakes and Dams RMG to address characteristics of watercourses, namely hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota through following a phased approach, namely; diagnostic, planning, and assessment, setting of the rehabilitation objectives, execution, and monitoring phases. The following are key aspects covered to address the shortcoming for each characteristic of the watercourse: • Description of the specific characteristics of the watercourse; • Types of impacts for each characteristic of the watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that give rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of the watercourse; and • Step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. Human‐induced disturbances such as constructed weirs within rivers/dams change the hydrology, physico-chemistry, and connectivity of river ecosystems. Abstraction of water from the dam for irrigation purposes and other uses results in the decline of water levels which has a direct impact on ecological category, habitat, and biota of the riverine systems. Climate change also causes shifts in vegetation cover that may lead to increased erosion rates, which can be expected to increase the rates of sedimentation in reservoirs. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for hydrology have been developed with a focus on re-design and maintenance of improperly designed weirs to restore/improve flow characteristics conditions of associated instream dams. Agriculture is a major source/cause of increased erosion. Most cultivated agricultural soil remains with insufficiently developed vegetation for long periods. Intensive agricultural practices (i.e., overgrazing) with loss of soil cover, erosion by cultivation of steep slopes and fertiliser application dominate the physiography of the catchment, increasing erosion and leaching processes which affect the water quality in dams. Human-induced activities and unsustainable land management practices such as Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 xxi agricultural farming practices and sand mining contribute to erosion, sediment transport, and deposition of sediments throughout the river basin. In terms of geomorphology, the RMGs have been developed with a focus on the rehabilitation of disturbed vegetation (upstream and downstream of dams) to promote flood attenuation and soil stabilisation. Eutrophication driven by effluent discharge from Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs) affects water quality and poses a health risk to humans and negatively impacts ecosystems and species. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is another impact causing enduring environmental and water quality problems. Salinisation, which is the build-up of salts in a river system, poses a threat to the ecological integrity of a lake or dam and interferes with the desirable uses of the water. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed to address effluent from WWTWs. Sediment trapping by dams result in the accumulation of sediment in dams which affects the ecosystem’s structure and function. It alters aquatic ecology, affecting species composition and ultimately both recreational and subsistence fishing. It also reduces the storage capacity of the dams to an extent that dams lose their functionality. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed for habitat with a focus on rehabilitation for sedimentation for the ecological functioning of the aquatic ecosystem and improvement of dam storage capacity. The presence of existing instream barriers (i.e., weirs and dams) to migratory species in rivers is a major factor responsible for the reduction in numbers and range of many migratory fish and invertebrate species throughout South Africa. Most indigenous fish species migrate annually within river/wetland systems to optimise feeding, promote dispersal, avoid unfavourable conditions, and enhance reproductive success. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed for biota with specific reference to re-establishing species migratory routes. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND In South Africa, dams and lakes are reported to be degraded by eutrophication, salinisation, sedimentation/siltation, and acidification (IWQM, 2017). In 2017, the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) developed the Integrated Water Quality Management (IWQM) Policies and Strategies, which identified the above-mentioned impacts as priority water quality issues that require intervention as a matter of urgency for dams and lakes. To address the impacts on South African dams and lakes, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) in the DWS initiated a project for the development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Resources (i.e., dams and lakes). The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM) to conduct sources-directed studies to ensure water resource protection. In the Situation Assessment Phase of the project, it was found that the majority of the studies and practices conducted on the rehabilitation of lakes and dams in South Africa are mainly structural and geotechnical related. This presents a challenge to the current guidelines since the focus is on the rehabilitation of water resources for ecological functioning. The DWS plays a major role in regulating the use of our water resources and ensuring the safe operation of dams in the country. This is achieved through two programmes namely, the Dam Safety Evaluation Programme (DSEP) and the Dam Safety Rehabilitation Programme (DSRP). The DSEP include conducting 5 yearly dam safety evaluation on the dams owned by the department. The DSRP is informed by the recommendation from the 5 yearly dam safety evaluation. The DSRP implement the recommendations from the DSEP by rehabilitating dams to comply with the dam safety regulations. These programmes ensure that the dam safety guidelines by the South African National Committee on Large Dams (SANCOLD) and International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) are adhered to. Although programmes and initiatives have been developed and implemented, below is a list of gaps identified from the review conducted: • Lack of Rehabilitation Guidelines for lakes and dams for ecological functioning. • Lack of rehabilitation measures/interventions/best management practices relating to rehabilitation of dams for hydrological and ecological connectivity, decommissioning of dams (i.e., demolishing of dams and weirs) for ecological functioning and gain. • There is no rehabilitation programme to address all characteristics of watercourse for dams like surface flow, interflow, groundwater flow, geomorphology, habitat, and biota. Based on the gaps and shortcomings identified, it is evident that there are Dam Safety Guidelines in place, but they only address engineering-related rehabilitation. It is against this backdrop that the development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Lakes and Dams was initiated (e.g., re-design and maintenance of improperly designed weirs to restore/improve flow characteristics conditions of associated instream dams). 1.2 DEFINITIONS OF LAKES AND DAMS There are two types of lakes, namely, natural lakes and artificial lakes (reservoirs and dams). These resources play an important role in water supply, biodiversity, habitat, and flood control, and they are also important culturally and aesthetically. Water supply is one of the factors necessary for economic Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 2 development and it plays an important role in the development of society. The water source (i.e., contribution of groundwater vs surface water) is one of the key differences between these waterbodies. Natural lakes are generally subdivided based on hydrology, whereas artificial lakes are often categorised based on their size and their primary reason for being constructed (Hayes, et. al. 2017). Figure 1 provides key differences between lakes and reservoirs. Figure 1: Key differences between lakes and reservoirs Source: Hayes et. al., 2017 A dam (Figure 2, represented by blue and orange broken lines), in terms of physical appearance, refers to the structural barrier that is constructed across a river or a valley ensure that water is prevented from flowing. When the impounded water exceeds the full supply level of a dam, the water will then be conveyed downstream in a controlled manner by means of a spillway 1 (Figure 2 and 3, represented by orange broken lines), with other releases from a dam often done by means of an outlet pipe. A dam is used mainly for storage of water for supply and electricity generation. It is useful for control or attenuation of floods, and it may often serve as a tourist attraction. A dam, if not appropriately designed and constructed, can prevent the migration of fish species upstream and downstream of a river. A reservoir (Figure 2, represented by blue solid lines) on the other hand is a large waterbody that forms behind a dam to form an artificial lake. A reservoir is used to supply water for consumption and agricultural purposes and is often used as a recreation site (fishing, boat activities). A reservoir, once created by the construction of a dam i.e., a small dam with wall height lower than 12m or big dam with a wall height more than 30m, requires people/communities residing within the reservoir basin (typically below the 1 in 100-year flood level) to be relocated to another area as it presents a risk of inundation. 1 The designed “overflow” section of the dam is called the spillway. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 3 The familiar term for artificial lakes in South Africa is dams. Therefore, for this project “Rehabilitation Management Guidelines” and convenience, artificial lakes will be referred to as dams. It must also be noted that natural lakes and artificial lakes will be grouped in one guideline document which is Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams in terms of their interactions with characteristics of watercourses, namely, hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota. Figure 2: Midmar Dam situated in Kwazulu-Natal Provincial Source: DWS Hydrological Services website, 2024 Figure 3: A spillway on the Metsi-Matsho Dam in the Free State Province Source: DWS Hydrological Services website, 2024 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 4 1.3 DEFINITION OF WATERCOURSES In terms of the definition contained within the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), a watercourse means: • A river or spring; • A natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; • A wetland, dam, or lake into which, or from which, water flows; and • Any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse; and • A reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks. Note: The link between water resources and characteristics of watercourse is contained in the definition above as well as in Section 3.1 and 3.2 of the report. 1.4 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR LAKES AND DAMS The primary objectives of the guidelines are to: • Develop Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams in terms of their interactions with characteristics of watercourses, namely, hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota; and • Integrate, align, and harmonise lakes and dams rehabilitation work across various disciplines and institutions. 1.5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES The current Rehabilitation Management Guidelines will be developed for characteristics of watercourses, namely; hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota. The following are aspects to be covered under each characteristic of the watercourse: • Description of the specific characteristics of the watercourse; • Types of impacts for each characteristic of the watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that gives rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of a watercourse; and • Development of Rehabilitation Guidelines – step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. 1.5.1 Guiding Principles The need for rehabilitation arises due to degradation attributed amongst others to “natural” (lake aging) or “cultural” (as a result of human impacts) factors. Although interventions may not be able to reinstate water resources to a natural state, a functional state must be the aim of ecosystem recovery initiatives. King et al. (2003) and WRC (2016) recommended the following key principles for rehabilitation: • Defining the status quo; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 5 • Determining the original unimpacted state to serve as baseline or reference conditions for rehabilitation; • Defining rehabilitation objectives; • The objectives for rehabilitation should be clear, and explicit; • Rehabilitation must direct the system back towards a more natural state, and work in harmony with the major abiotic drivers of the ecosystem; • Undertaking rehabilitation should be seen as an interdisciplinary activity, recognising that rehabilitation may be necessary over a range of spatial and temporal scales; • Rehabilitation should aim at treating causes rather than symptoms; • Given that ecosystems are dynamic and can naturally exist in alternative metastable states, it should be remembered that it is easier to cross a degradation threshold than to return over it; • Monitoring should be an essential component of rehabilitation. Below is a list of some key importance and applicability of the above-mentioned principles: • Ecosystem-based approach; • Re-instating natural processes; • Enhancing biodiversity and habitat diversity; • Improving water quality; • Flood mitigation and erosion control; • Stakeholder engagement and community involvement; and • Long-term sustainability. 1.5.2 Approach The development guidelines are the core of this report. The Lakes and Dams Rehabilitation Management Guidelines being developed aim to guide the water users on step-by-step rehabilitation measures/interventions to be followed for executing rehabilitation with specific attention to and consideration of planning, design, implementation, and monitoring for the identified impacts. Table 1 below presents the approach to be followed for the development of the RMGs for Lakes and Dams guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 6 Table 1: Approach to be followed for development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for lakes and dams including the associated characteristics of watercourses. Phase Description PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase • The characteristics will be diagnosed to identify the cause/source of impact; and determine the level of modification and rehabilitation measures will be recommended to reinstate the conditions of the drivers. • Describe the characteristics, if possible, of the target system before the occurrence of the impact. This will assist in determining clear Rehabilitation Objectives. • Determine the conditions and the type, size, extent of impacts and vegetation cover/ species on characteristics of watercourses. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Phase • Conduct planning and assessment to ensure the desired rehabilitation outcomes are achieved. • Assess and collate available information from maps & datasets on the affected watercourses. • Review and assess legal considerations. PHASE 3: Define the Rehabilitation Objectives • Identify and define the objectives of rehabilitation to ensure the impacts on the characteristics of watercourses are addressed. PHASE 4: Execution • Recommend techniques and methods to address the impacts identified. Consider the protection of the water the resources ecosystem. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation (M & E) and Reporting • Monitor the results of the techniques and methods employed for rehabilitation to determine whether objectives are being achieved and whether there are any additional interventions required. • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. • Compilation of Rehabilitation Report i.e., record implementation on a database for reporting intervention type and extent. Note: • The studies and remedial actions should be undertaken by suitably trained and qualified professionals/specialists i.e., Hydrologist, Ecologist, Botanist, Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist/ Ichthyologist, Water Engineer etc. • Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. In addition, the expected outcomes of monitoring and evaluation can be achieved through the use of available knowledge hubs. The outputs of monitoring should be reported to the relevant international frameworks i.e., SDGs, GBF. 1.6 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES The RMGs for Lakes and Dams is a set of tools developed to ensure that clear and practical steps are provided on a wide range of rehabilitation measures/interventions related to characteristics of watercourses which take cognisance of legal, social, economic, and ecological issues and aspects. The guidelines are intended for all Government Departments (National, Provincial and Local), Catchment Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 7 Management Agencies (CMAs), sectoral institutions (i.e., higher education institutions), civil society members, non-governmental entities, private sector (agriculture, industries, mining) and all interested and affected parties involved in the water sector. The guidelines are developed at a national scale for implementation at a catchment level. 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES The guideline is divided into six main sections as follows: • The opening sections contain the document signatories, document index and status, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of figures, tables, acronyms, and executive summary. • Section 1 provides the background of the development of the guidelines, purpose, approach, intended users and structure of the guidelines. • Section 2 provides the overarching legal framework for Lakes and Dams rehabilitation. • Section 3 describes the characteristics of watercourses and their linkage to water resources. • Section 4 provides the overarching water resource impacts and degradation impacts associated with characteristics of watercourses. • Section 5 provides step-by-step Technical Rehabilitation Guidelines for characteristics of watercourses. • Section 6 provides recommendations and a way forward. 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 OVERARCHING LEGAL FRAMEWORK The DWS as the mandated authority over water resources has undertaken to review, revise and update its policies, strategies, guidelines, and systems to align with the laws of the new Democracy and the Constitution of the country. Hence, the development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams. Table 2 provides pieces of legislation that relates to lakes and dams management. It must be noted that there is no single legislative system specifically for lake management, however, they have been catered for in various legislations (acts) which have been enforced by a wide range of authorities with differing objectives and approaches. These authorities include but are not limited to the DWS, Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE), South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), SANParks Board and provincial nature conservation departments. Table 2: Authorities responsible for lakes and dams management and objectives of relevant acts. Act Description Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 The Bill of Rights contained in Chapter 2 of the Constitution applies to all law and binds the legislator, the executive, the judiciary, and all organs of the state. Section 24 makes provision to the right of an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being; and have the environment that is protected for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that (i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation; (ii) promote conservation; and (iii) secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 8 Act Description and social development. Whereas Section 27(1)(c) makes specific provision to access of sufficient water. The Lake Areas Development Act, 1975 (Act 39 of 1979) The Minister of Environment Affairs may, by notice in the Government Gazette, declare any land comprising or adjoining a tidal lagoon, a tidal river or any part thereof, or any other land comprising or adjoining a natural lake or river or any part thereof which is within the immediate vicinity of a tidal lagoon or a tidal river, to be a Lake Area. This Act may serve to protect the natural habitats in and around lakes. National Water Act (NWA), 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) The NWA provides the legal framework for the effective and sustainable management of our water resources. The Act aims to protect, use, develop, conserve, manage and control water resources as a whole, promoting the integrated management of water resources with the participation of all stakeholders. Chapter 3 specifically provides for the protection of water resources. The aim of protecting water resources is to ensure that water is available for current and future use. This is achieved by leaving enough water of a certain quality in the water resources to maintain the overall ecological functioning of the rivers, lakes and dams, wetlands, groundwater, and estuaries. Protection of the water resource is therefore about the quantity and quality (overall health) of the nation’s water resources. Some water resources are already overused and polluted, the available water is already taken, and the surrounding environment is in a poor state. Hence, there is a need for rehabilitation and protection of water resources. Environment Conservation Act (ECA), 1989 (Act 73 of 1989) Provides for the protection and controlled utilisation of the environment and the determination of policy to protect, use sustainably, and rehabilitate the environment National Environmental Management (NEMA) Act, 1998 (Act 107 of 1998) NEMA provides for co-operative environmental governance by establishing principles for decision making on matters that are affecting the environment and providing for certain aspects of the administration and enforcement of other environmental management laws. Environmental law encompasses the following three distinct but interrelated areas of general concern (DWS, 2021): • Land-use planning and development; • Resource conservation and utilisation; and • Waste management and pollution control. The provisions and regulations of Government Notice NR. 543 to R. 547, dated 18 June 2010, promulgated in terms of NEMA regarding control over activities that may have a detrimental effect on the environment must be complied with. Normally it will be required that an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) be carried out before any works i.e., rehabilitation, restoration, enlargement, or repair, of an existing dam will be authorised. Written authorisation must be obtained from the relevant provincial government department before the commencement. National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM: BA), 2004 (Act 10 of 2004) Aims to provide for the management and conservation of South Africa’s biological diversity, the protection of both ecosystems and species in need of protection and the sustainable use of indigenous biological resources. In terms of its relevance to protecting lakes, the Act gives effect to relevant international agreements which South Africa is a party of (i.e., the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and the Convention on Biodiversity), as well providing for co-operative governance, which is important when there are a number of agencies at different tiers of government responsible for the management of ecosystems (O’Sulliva and Reynolds, 2005). National Parks South African National Parks is responsible for inclusive nature conservation and to advance Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 9 Act Description Act (NPA), 1976 (Act 57 of 1976) nature conservation policies in line with the National Development Framework for Sustainable Development and the National Development Plan; and the objective of the NPA is to establish national parks for the preservation and study of wild animal, marine and plant life and objects of geological, archaeological, historical, ethnological, oceanographic, educational and other scientific interest and objects relating to the life, events or history of the park, which is retained in its natural state for the benefit of visitors. National Forest Act (NFA), 1998 (Act 84 of 1998) The purpose of the Act is to promote the sustainable management and development of forests for benefits of all and it provide special measures for the protection of certain forests and trees. The act provides for legal protection of all South African natural forests. The 26 National Forests type of South Africa has been declared under Section 7(2) of NFA (include Mangrove forests, Swamp Forests and Lowveld Riverine Forests). Changes in the structure and functioning of ecosystems could cause the impact and functioning of forest ecosystems and biodiversity. Note: The DWS GA 509 of August 2016 was revised and replaced with GA 4167 of December 2023. The GA makes provision for rehabilitation work in general that will enhance the PES of watercourses/ water resources. In general, the RMGs do not only concentrate on water use authorisations for new applications but also on historic activities that were undertaken without proper authorization. Note: • The DWS does not authorize rehabilitation, but it authorizes the impeding, diverting, or changing of bed/banks of characteristics of watercourses; and if any of those activities in terms of rehabilitation constitute those water uses, they need to get authorized accordingly. • The RMGs provide guidance to other external persons (i.e., private) for any rehabilitation activities that may impede, divert, and change the bed/banks of characteristics of watercourses; if these other person(s) are impeding, diverting, and changing the bed/banks then they should apply for authorization for which there is a provision for within the DWS. 2.2 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES AND STRATEGIES Various policies, strategies and guidelines inform Lakes and Dams Rehabilitation Management in South Africa. Table 3 below provides a summary of the most prominent policies and strategies that give direction to the rehabilitation of Lakes and Dams in South Africa and highlights of their important aspects for alignment with the rehabilitation of lakes and dams. Table 3: Alignment of policies and strategies with the rehabilitation of lakes and dams Policies and Strategies Alignment with the Rehabilitation of Lakes & Dams National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS) The NWRS is a statutory strategy, required in terms of the NWA, is binding on all authorities and institutions implementing the Act and provides the framework for integrated water resource management for the country as a whole, and within which water resources will be managed at the regional or catchment level. National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP) NW&SMP constitutes the roll-out mechanism for NWRS implementation and specifies, inter alia, priority budget items, Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 10 Policies and Strategies Alignment with the Rehabilitation of Lakes & Dams scheduled up to 2030 and beyond, for the entire water sector (DWS, 2021). Draft Rehabilitation Policy Laid a foundation for DWS to implement, regulate and facilitate Environmental Rehabilitation within its mandate as custodian of water resources. One of the objectives of this initiative was to perform environmental rehabilitation that is associated with water resources development impacts to acceptable international standards. Integrated Water Quality Management Strategy (IWQM), 2017 The IWQM Strategy sets out strategic actions which are required to be undertaken to realise the vision and goals for water quality in South Africa. It articulates the broader process of IWQM and provides the prioritised strategic actions that need to take place in relation to the management of water quality in a holistic manner such as coming up with strategies and guidelines to manage water resources and priority water quality issues such as eutrophication, salinisation, sedimentation/siltation, and acidification that require intervention as a matter of urgency. Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa (EMSSA) The EMSSA gives direction with the respect to the management of eutrophication, specifically, the control of anthropogenic sources of excessive nutrient enrichment from a strategic country-perspective. EMSSA vouches for the rehabilitation and restoration of ecological infrastructure, rehabilitation of hard infrastructure as well as adequate maintenance of water resources and services infrastructure as some of the responses to drivers of the degradation of water resources. Further, it promotes the rehabilitation and restoration of affected water resources, including the implementation of bio-remediation initiatives, such as the Harties Metsi-a Me/ Hartbeespoort Dam Biological Remediation Project, in affected water resources which should be supported to attain more innovative and progressive solutions to address issues such as eutrophication problems. Mine Water Policy (MWM) The DWS formulated the policy on the management of mine water due to legacy impacts of mining in South Africa, together with the socio- economic stimulus triggered by current and potential mining mega- developments in Mpumalanga, Limpopo, Free State, North-West and the Northern Cape provinces. The Policy is aimed to respond to cross cutting mine water management issues in abandoned and ownerless mines, mines that are currently active, and in proposed mining operations. The MWM Policy of 2022 is supported by principles of the IWQM Policy which itself seeks to amalgamate and describe an integrated, inclusive, and adaptive approach to IWQM; amplifies the principles of sustainable development; addressing gaps in policy and legislation; and invoking of the “polluter-pays” principle framework. The Policy further sets out the vision, goal, values, underlying principles, and policy responses for managing the overall quality of our water resources. In addition to the strategies and policies listed in Table 3, the below is a list of other related policies strategies, principles, and concepts: • The implementation of Resource Directed Measures (RDM), particularly the Reserve, Water Resources Class, Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) and Source Directed Controls (SDCs) is Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 11 founded on principles of improving water resources quality and reducing deterioration where applicable. • The implementation of Catchment Management Strategies as informed by the National Water Policy to provide the framework for managing water resources within the water management area. • Policy principles and guidelines for control of development affecting natural forests (2010) aimed to ensure the effective protection and sustainability of natural forests through proper control over development and land use change affecting forests in South Africa. Other Key Water Resource Management Principles and Concepts • Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) - a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. It takes into account the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. • Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) - aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets (i.e., GBF Goal A target 2 for restoration of ecosystems). Although the DWS focuses mainly on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. • Social-Ecological System (SES) – are linked systems of people and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, 1998). 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES 3.1. INTRODUCTION TO CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES A comprehensive process of water resources rehabilitation requires attention to be given across the board to characteristics of watercourses, namely, hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota. For all the above-mentioned characteristics, rehabilitation of watercourses is limited, and a practical case is that some dams are not catered for ecological releases. Generally, rehabilitation concerning shaping, re-vegetation, and alien and invasive species (AIS) (including other related invasive species i.e., Potamogeton, Lagarosiphon, and Stuckenia) eradication is limited under the NWA. Rehabilitation interventions and practices that focus on and include water quality issues such as pollution from WWTWs and from non-point sources are also limited. There are multiple concerns on the issues of rehabilitation and the main factors are mines, WWTWs as well as poor compliance and implementation of legislation in terms of buffers to watercourses. Therefore, the need for the development of rehabilitation guidelines with a focus on the characteristics of watercourses is essential. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 12 To this end, to develop such guidelines, it is important to consider factors (drivers and responses) that underpin water ecosystem health and functionality. Figure 4 below depicts the Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) components for ecosystems. This figure demonstrates that water flow, water quality and geomorphology are the main drivers of EWRs, and the habitat (vegetation) and biota (fauna) are the responses but are interlinked. Figure 4: The Ecological Water Requirements of the Reserve including drivers and responses Source: Beechie and Bolton, 1999 3.2. LINK BETWEEN WATER RESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES The rehabilitation of water resources is directly linked to the rehabilitation of the characteristics of watercourses (drivers and responses) because impacts on water resources may be as equally prevalent on all these characteristics of watercourses. A point in case is that instream dams are considered water resources as well as part and parcel of the watercourses because all characteristics of watercourses come into play when dealing with a dam e.g., surface flow, water quality, geomorphology, habitat, and biota. The other reason is that dams share the same characteristics as rivers in terms of hydrological and geomorphological connectivity; whilst habitat, and buffers around them are as equally important. In terms of the implementation of the management actions or measures, dams need operating rules while rivers need Ecological Flow requirements/ Ecological Water Requirements. Figure 5 below illustrates the link between water resources and the characteristics of watercourses. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 13 Figure 5: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. 4. IMPACTS CAUSING DEGRADATION OF LAKES AND DAMS Artificial reservoirs (i.e., dams) experience degradation and loss of storage (i.e., become shallower) capacity at a faster rate than lakes. This problem applies particularly to small retention reservoirs, localised areas dominated by anthropogenic and agricultural activities. The phenomenon is due to natural conditions of water catchment areas and the supply of external organic and mineral matter, as well as their low resistance. The degree of natural resistance to the impact of the water catchment area depends on the depth of the reservoir, its capacity ratio, and the length of the coastline (Bartoszek and Koszelnik, 2015). In South Africa dams and water reservoirs have been reportedly impaired by sedimentation, mineralisation/salinisation, nutrient enrichment (at an excessive rate leads to eutrophication) and acid mine drainage (AMD). These impacts are either related to natural or anthropogenic activities as depicted in Figure 6. In addition, the key pressures on South Africa’s freshwater lakes are reported to be changes to the hydrological regime, water pollution, habitat modification, invasive species, and climate change (SANBI, 2019). Further information on the impacts is covered in detail under Section 5 of the guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 14 Figure 6: Natural and anthropogenic impacts on lakes and dams Source: modified after Khatri and Tyagi, 2014 In addition to the natural and anthropogenic sources of pollution presented in Figure 6, below is a summary of the water quality impacts prevalent in lakes and dams: • Eutrophication – excessive nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) loading in water through point and non-point sources is an ecological concern and affects water quality in surface water bodies. In addition, human and aesthetic impacts include odour and taste problems, morbidity and mortality due to potential toxic cyanobacteria biotoxins; • Algal blooms – algae growth in canals block irrigation systems; • Organic pollution – pesticides and herbicides used in agricultural activities cause reduction of dissolved oxygen and negatively impacts aquatic organisms and fish; • Turbidity – high levels of turbidity reduce aquatic light levels and affects the rate of photosynthesis in aquatic organisms; • Low oxygen levels – reduced oxygen levels have a negative impact on the life of aquatic organisms and fish; and Sources of Water Pollution Natural causes Same in rural and Urban areas -Geology of rocks -Climate change -Natural disasters (floods, droughts, earthquakes etc.) -Atmospheric deposition -Weathering rocks Anthropogennic causes Rural areas -Agricultural activities -Ruoff from croplands -Barnyards and feedlots -Wasteland application and storage facilities -Construction sites -Mining operations -Sewage discharge -Washing clothes, vehicles, bathing of animals in water body -Timber harvesting -Pasture land (poultry farms) Urban areas -Industrial discharge -Channelisation -Municipal discharges -Landfill sites -Domestic effluent -Septic system and livestock waste in residentual areas -Land use/and cover change Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 15 • Ecological impacts – nutrient loads from domestic wastewater treatment plants, fertilisers from agricultural lands and urban areas cause change in aquatic life i.e., alteration of fish population and reduction of biodiversity. 5. GUIDELINES FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERCOURSES 5.1. HYDROLOGY 5.1.1. Description Rivers are characterised by connectivity in three dimensions, namely, longitudinal (i.e., upstream- downstream), lateral (i.e., channel to floodplain and side channel), and vertical (surface-groundwater) (Kondolf, 2006). Dams affect the longitudinal continuity of river systems directly, and, through changes in flow regime and induced changes in channel form, can also reduce lateral connectivity (Kondolf and Yi, 2022). Moreover, these changes can also reduce vertical connectivity. 5.1.2. Types of Impacts 5.1.2.1. Constructed weirs. Weirs, also known as low-head dams, are small overflow-type dams commonly used to raise the level of a river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir, although some weirs have sluice gates, which release water at a level below the top of the weir. Figure 7 below illustrates a typical example of a weir structure (Station ID: C2H007; Place: Vaal at Orkney) located within the Vaal Water Management Area (WMA 5). Figure 7: A weir structure located within the Vaal WMA Source: DWS Hydrological Services website, 2024 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 16 A weir is used to prevent and attenuate flooding, measure water flow, and hold water. A weir will typically disrupt life-cycles, reduce gene pools, and create conditions where fish become more susceptible to disease and predation, and hence it can have a detrimental effect on the local ecology of a river system. A weir can artificially reduce the upstream water velocity, which can lead to an increase in siltation. Although many benefits of weirs are reported, their incorrect design, construction, or placement may result in profound effects on riverine ecosystems. Weirs are reported to impact river ecosystems negatively by changing the geomorphology, hydrology, physico-chemistry, and connectivity of river ecosystems (Doyle et al., 2005; Csiki and Rhoads, 2010) as detailed below: • Hydrological effects - weirs raise water levels upstream to the height of the weir crest or higher. As a consequence of the increased river levels and loss of gradient caused by weir impoundment, velocities upstream are reduced (Stanley et al. 2002; Pohlon et al. 2007; Mueller et. al., 2011). This decrease in river velocity can extend several kilometers upstream of a weir, depending on the bed gradient. • Physicochemical effects - dependent on the type of weir impoundment, the physico-chemical characteristics of a river are also altered. Weir ponds tend to cause the accumulation of particulate organic matter (POM), which in turn leads to a higher biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (Pohlon et al., 2007). • River connectivity effects - weirs pose a barrier to fish movement and have been found to delay or prevent upstream migration of aquatic species. • Biotic effects - weirs directly affect life in rivers by breaking up the river connectivity and altering the riverine environment. Evidence for this effect has been collected for many groups of organisms such as benthic algal communities, zooplankton fauna, macro invertebrates, and aquatic vegetation. 5.1.2.2. Dam/Lakes Induced Impacts on Connectivity and Flow; and Loss in hydrological connectivity. Dam/Lakes-induced changes in river flow regimes vary widely, depending on the natural hydrology of the river, and the purpose, size, geometry, and operation of the dam and reservoir (Kondolf and Yi, 2022). The changes in the flow regimes induce changes in river ecology in multiple ways. River flow and sediment load create physical habitats, such as bars, riffles, pools, and floodplains. Changes in flow regimes can result in changes to these features (Ashraf et al., 2022). Artificially modifying the seasonal flow regime can disrupt ecological responses, habitat, biota (various life stages of organisms, such as reproduction, juvenile growth, and migration), and adult migration because aquatic species have evolved to adapt to natural seasonal patterns of flow. Flow alteration (by construction of dams, weirs, abstractions, diversions etc.) is one of the key impacts by humans on freshwater ecosystems. Anthropogenic activities can significantly alter the flow and may lead to biological impairment. Flow alteration refers to the modification of flow characteristics, or natural conditions which may lead to changes of biotic community composition. Flow regime change is evident in terms of altered baseflows, reduced flooding magnitude and frequency, reduced floodplain inundation, and altered flow variability; however, the extent to which these hydrological components are altered depends on the river hydrological change (Rolls and Bond, 2017). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 17 5.1.2.3. Water abstraction Abstraction of water from rivers and dams for irrigation purposes and other uses results in the decline of water levels, affects ecological releases and reduces assimilative capacity of the resource and impacts water quality; all of which have a direct impact on ecology, habitat (destruction of riverine forests /woodland), and biota (i.e., animal and plant species) of the riverine systems. 5.1.2.4. Climate Change Climate change causes flooding and desertification resulting in the shift of vegetation cover that may lead to increased erosion rates, which can be expected to increase the rates of sedimentation in reservoirs (Nearing et al., 2004). Even larger changes are documented from land-use changes in river basins draining to dams, with road construction, mining, and land-clearing for agricultural expansion or alien vegetation clearing in the upper catchments being among human actions with the greatest impact on flow and sediment loads reaching dams. 5.1.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Hydrology Scenario 1: Re-design and maintenance of improperly designed weirs to restore/improve flow characteristic/conditions of associated instream dam/lake. Note: For purpose of this scenario, the assumption is that the functioning of the weir has been disrupted due to flood events that deposit debris and scour the foundation of the weir; rehabilitation activities must be undertaken to restore its functioning. Typical examples of expertise required to undertake rehabilitation for Hydrology component: Hydrologist, Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist, Ichthyologist, Water Engineer etc. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the weir in question within the river/stream that is affected. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: At a desktop level, use mapping various tools such as Google Earth Pro/Engine, aerial or satellite images, Geographical Information System (GIS), and/or Remote Sensing methods to obtain baseline information. It should be noted that the use of the above tools will not necessarily result in all information required on the affected weir. Therefore, the type of weir affected should be verified and validated in terms of type and extent during the site visit to be undertaken in the planning and assessment phase. Some examples of the different types of weirs include: o Sharp crested weir, Broad crested weir (or broad-crested weir), Crump weir, Needle dam, Proportional weir, Combination weir, MF weir, V-notch weir, Rectangular weir, Cipolletti (trapezoidal) weir, and Labyrinth weir. o Figures 8-10 illustrate some of the above-mentioned weirs. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 18 Figure 8: Example of a compound sharp-crested weir in the Vaal River downstream of Vaal Dam Source: Wessels and Rooseboom, 2009 Figure 9: Example of a horizontal compound Crump weir without dividing walls in the Vaal River catchment (Mpumalanga) Source: Wessels and Rooseboom, 2009 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 19 Figure 10: Example of a V-shape Crump weir in the Mooi River near Potchefstroom (North-West Province) Source: Wessels and Rooseboom, 2009 PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Undertake a site visit to collect pertinent information and data regarding the weir in question. The information and data may include but are not limited to the following: o Site location and description of the locality within which the weir is located; o Biodiversity features associated with the weir; o Designs and dimensions; o Weir hydraulics; o Construction material used for the weir i.e., rock-filled gabions, reinforced concrete, mass concrete. Step 2: Based on information collated in Step 1, determine the main factors affecting the functioning of the weir. Examples of impacts are as follows: o Flooding events; o Deposit of debris; o Scouring of foundation of weir; o Erosion and siltation clogging the weir; o Degradation, and ageing of the weir; and o Structural impacts. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of the rehabilitation of weirs must be clearly defined and set. The objectives must be informed by the data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. Some of the most common aims and objectives of rehabilitation of weirs are to: • Mitigate the increased runoff and prevent flooding events; • Provide a passageway, i.e., a fishway for migratory fish; • Operate dam to natural flow and temperature regimes; • Ensure Ecological Water Releases; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 20 • Correct structural problems i.e., deterioration of concrete, failure of spillways, cavitation of outlet pipes 2 . PHASE 4: Execution There are several rehabilitation methods/techniques available for the control and management of affected weirs due to flood events. The technique applicable for this above-discussed scenario is rehabilitation with a steel-reinforced concrete weir and piped outlet works. The weir would have to be re-designed with new dimensions (i.e., height, length, and width) to ensure the ability to withstand future flooding events. The new pipeline would be constructed such that it would feed water from the weir. Other examples of available methods/techniques include: • Modification of the structure (weir) to increase the spillway capacity to allow passage of floodwater to satisfy dam safety; • Spillways are intended to safely pass the floodwaters without allowing the dam to overtop and without damaging downstream properties through flooding or erosion. An example is the principal spillway which represents the main outlet of the reservoir. It can take several forms and can either be a single-phase or a multi-phase structure. The main functions of the principal spillway are as follows: o To safely pass the design storm flows; o To maintain the desired water level within the reservoir. • Installation of deflectors at appropriate angles in the channel to regulate the velocity of the water during flood events; • Installation of permanent riprap fill for stabilisations of the walls downstream of the weir. • Addition of cobbles downstream of the weir; • Installing a safety and debris boom upstream as part of the weir; • Structural Grouting - stabilisation of the foundation of the weir with grout; • Grinding and refinishing weir surfaces with erosion-resistant coating; • Energy Dissipation Basin - replace the eroded energy dissipation basin with a new multi- purpose design to dissipate flow energy, support fish passage, and reduce operations and maintenance. Figure 11 below presents a summary of the rehabilitation methods/techniques discussed in Phase 4 above. 2 Depending on size of dam or weir, the rehabilitation of the cavitation the outlet pipe may need to be undertaken in accordance with the DWS Dam Safety Regulations Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 21 Figure 11: Rehabilitation methods/techniques available for control and management of affected weir due to floods events. Note: • Structures such as dams, weirs and fishways were historically built without considering the migratory species functions. • It has become a worldwide phenomenon to demolish structures that form barriers for the improvement of environmental ecology, flow of water, sustainability, and landscape. • The removal of non-functioning structures acting as barriers to the flow of water, should be considered to form part and parcel of the available rehabilitation interventions based on the site-specific conditions. • The demolition of weirs should be only considered in cases where there are environmental problems experienced. In addition, historic dams and weirs do not cater for fishways and ecological flow releases; therefore, where there are impacts that cannot be mitigated, then one should consider the demolition of such structures. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring and Maintenance Monitoring • Weirs require regular maintenance and monitoring to remain in good working condition and to ensure these structures work in harmony with the environment; •Rehabilitationwithasteelenforced concreteweirandpipedoutletworks •Theweirshouldbere-designedwith newdimensions(i.e.,height,length, andwidth)toensuretheabilityto withstandfuturefloodingevents •Thenewpipelinewouldbe constructedsuchthatitwillfeed waterfromtheweir REHABILITATION METHODS/TECHNIQUES •Modificationofweirtoincreasethe spillwaycapacitytoallowpassageof floodconditionsofsuitabledam safety •Installationofdeflectorsat appropriateanglesinthechannelto regulatevelocityofthewaterduring floodevents •Installingasafetyanddebrisboom upstreamaspartoftheweir •EnergyDissipationBasin-to dissipateflowenergy,supportfish passage,andreduceoperationsand maintenance OTHER AVAILABLE METHODS/TECHNIQUES Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 22 • The rehabilitated weir must be monitored quarterly, before the rainy season and directly after a heavy rainfall event to ensure the crest of the weir is in good condition and free of obstructions. Furthermore, ensure that the weir remains in a safe working condition through continuous monitoring during the implementation phase i.e., avoid slumping, cracking, or obvious changes to the crest of the wall; • Determine maintenance objectives. Maintenance • Maintenance activities include clearing debris from the crest, removing silt, from upstream of the weir, providing safety booms, and carrying out repairs to the structure are also critical; • Future maintenance of the river reaches upstream and downstream of the weir should also be considered in the implementation phase; • Activities such as clearing vegetation, cutting back overhanging trees, removal of silt and repairs to erosion protection may form part of the channel maintenance regime in the vicinity of the weir. Note: Weirs that incorporate a fish pass, regulating gates, and/or flow/level monitoring equipment are likely to require more maintenance than a standard weir structure. The specific requirements of any particular installation must be considered in the design process, and the design tailored to facilitate safe maintenance activities. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas. The below are the types of maps that can be produced: o An electronic georeferenced image of the rehabilitation with clearly marked areas of intervention; and o A polygon and point shapefile detailing all intervention types and extents done. It should be noted that this option has proven to yield the best results. Note: Intervention extents should be quantifiable for reporting extent per area or ecosystem types, at a national and global scale. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.2. GEOMORPHOLOGY 5.2.1. Description Geomorphology is a science focused on understanding Earth’s surface processes and landscape (such as river channels, estuaries, wetlands, mountains, and valleys) evolution (Keller et.al., 2020). Geomorphological understanding is central to environmental flows because it is the interaction between flow, form, and substrate that influences habitat type, condition, availability and biotic use across space and time (Meitzen et. al., 2013). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 23 5.2.2. Types of Impacts 5.2.2.1. Human-induced sedimentation Agriculture is a major source of increased erosion. Most cultivated agricultural soil remains with insufficiently developed vegetation for long periods. Intensive agricultural practices (i.e., overgrazing) with loss of soil cover, erosion by cultivation of steep slopes, and fertiliser application dominate the physiography of the catchment, increasing erosion and leaching processes that affect dams. The sources of erosion include road construction, and any other building activities, which leave the soil barren for prolonged periods (Straškraba and Tundisi, 1999). 5.2.2.2. Poor Land Use and Management including inappropriate interventions. Human-induced activities and unsustainable land management practices such as agricultural farming practices and sand mining contribute to erosion, sediment transport, and deposition of sediments throughout the river basin. Another contributing factor to erosion is excessive grazing which causes alteration of the natural vegetation cover, reduces vegetation and habitat complexity. These changes lead to sedimentation on the receiving waterways predominantly evident in rural areas. Indirect effects of grazing include trampling and creation of localised erosion gullies, while severely trampled riparian areas may be more vulnerable to erosion. Other activities and practices include urban development, road construction, construction the of dams that block the transport of sediment downstream and agricultural activities which impacts flow and sediment loads reaching dams (Kondolf, 2014). 5.2.2.3. Alien Invasive Species (i.e., Vegetation and fish) Indigenous vegetation and biota species enhance ecosystem functioning and the provisioning of ecosystem goods and services (Rodriguez, 2006). The spread of invasive alien species (plants and fish), however, can limit the functioning of ecosystems (Pejchar and Mooney 2009). In South Africa, aquatic species (i.e., weeds) frequently invade freshwater systems, forming dense monocultures that outcompete and replace indigenous vegetation, thus reducing biodiversity within indigenous species and altering ecosystem functioning (Chamier et al., 2012). Furthermore, invasive alien plants have impacts on interflow and/or stream flow which leads to stream flow reduction. Alien invasive impacts are also notable on the ecological function of aquatic ecosystem including ecosystem habitat and biota. Note: Several dams in South Africa are infested by indigenous invasive vegetation species such as Stuckenia, Potamogeton Lagarosiphon and others including reed monocultures which leads to increased water loss, increased sedimentation, and poses a safety risk. 5.2.2.4. Changes to beds and banks of watercourses; and sediment deprived water downstream of dams. Large dams have a negative effect on the physical properties of the river such as the bed and banks. The alteration of a river's flow and sediment transport downstream of a dam often causes the greatest sustained environmental impacts. For instance, when a watercourse is devoid of water and there is low flow downstream then its sediment load increases, it tends to recollect it by eroding the downstream riverbed and banks (Kondolf, 2008). Rivers transport sediment from eroding uplands to depositional areas near sea level. If the continuity of sediment transport is interrupted by dams or removal of sediment from the channel by gravel mining, the flow may become sediment-starved (hungry water) and prone to erode the channel bed Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 24 and banks, producing channel incision (downcutting), coarsening of bed material, and loss of spawning gravels (as smaller gravels are transported without replacement from upstream) (Kondolf, 1997). 5.2.2.5. Desilting impacts Dredging and desilting are methods that are used to remove an accumulation of silt material, such as fine gravels or soils that have been washed into rivers from surrounding land in the catchment. These methods tend to damage or destroy fish spawning grounds and make riverbanks unstable. Silt is ultimately deposited into dams and becomes suspended in the water, lowering oxygen levels, and potentially releasing harmful chemicals that may be present. This, in turn, impacts on wildlife, and water quality downstream. 5.2.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Geomorphology Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of disturbed vegetation (upstream and downstream of a dam) to promote flood attenuation and soil stabilisation. Typical examples of expertise required to undertake rehabilitation for Geomorphology component: Hydrologist, Ecologist, Botanist, Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist, Water Engineer etc. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Undertake a desktop study using tools such as Google Earth Pro/Engine, satellite images, GIS, and/or Remote Sensing to identify the areas in the vicinity of the lake/dam in question that has experienced modification of vegetation cover. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Using the desktop study results from Step 1, undertake an assessment to identify the potential impacts, causes, and effects of disturbed vegetation. Impacts on vegetation may in most cases be attributed to the following: o Excessive grazing by cattle, goats, sheep, and wild animals; o Trampling activities; o AIS infestation; o Excessive proliferation of indigenous vegetation; o Dumping activities which result in modification of landscape; o Sewage leakages and polluted mine water; o Development activities in close proximity to the dam; and o Erosion resulting in soil destabilisation. Step 4: Describe the biome and vegetation types within which the dam is situated i.e., catchment level. This information is critical for making recommendations on the re-vegetation plan inclusive of suitable indigenous vegetation. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct a field/site visit to accurately ascertain area(s) within the dam affected by vegetation modification. The survey results must include the following: o Identification of areas affected by vegetation modification and degradation; o The causes and effects of vegetation modification and degradation o The type(s) of vegetation prevalent on site; o The extent of the affected areas with the details relating to estimated hectares. Step 2: The below activities should be undertaken conjunctively with the site visit to supplement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 25 and ensure reliable information about the affected site. o Collection and collation of data with regards to the site from existing literature by using available tools such as Google Earth Pro/Engine, satellite images, GIS, and/or Remote Sensing; o Review of historical status (reference conditions); o Review of vegetation maps; o Review of threatened ecosystems; o Review of Conservation Management Plan; o Review of historical aerial imagery trends to provide clues on the vegetation patterns around the dam and disturbances over time. Note: not all historical aerial images of South Africa are uploaded to Google Earth Pro, but many are available from the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural development (DALRRD), and can be georeferenced. Step 3: Map and delineate the areas indicating the extent in hectares of the area(s) affected. This step must also consider the upstream and downstream conditions of the area(s) affected. Step 4: Mapping must be undertaken by comparing geo-referenced field survey data to the visual inspection of available and suitable imagery. Step 5: Undertake a vegetation sensitivity assessment to identify the following features of ecological importance: o Ecosystem or threatened vegetation unit; o Habitat or potential habitat to plant species of conservation concern; and o Ecologically sensitive features such as SWSAs, NFEPAs and riparian areas. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation disturbed vegetation must be defined and be clear at the start. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • Revegetate all disturbed areas with suitable indigenous and local plant species; • Shape to original or better topography; • Achieve stabilisation of the disturbed area and minimise erosion; • Minimise the visual impact of disturbed areas; and • Ensure that disturbed areas are rehabilitated to a condition similar to that found before to disturbance. PHASE 4: Execution Vegetation modification and degradation attributed to erosion and other related activities detailed in Phase 1, Step 2, are the main impacts identified in this scenario. Figure 12 below represents available rehabilitation methods/techniques for disturbed vegetation. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 26 Figure 12: Rehabilitation methods/techniques for disturbed vegetation. Note: Rehabilitation methods/techniques must be supported by a Plant Species Plan developed by the relevant specialist i.e., an Ecologist or Botanist. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring of rehabilitated and revegetated areas must be undertaken on an annual basis to ensure that the intervention methods employed are adequate and effective. Additional measures must be implemented in the event the monitoring results show no substantial changes i.e., double the application rates of seeds in areas where there are no signs of vegetation growth. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas. The below are the types of maps that can be produced: •Brushmattressesarerecommendedto restoreriparianvegetationhabitat, biotaandenhanceconditionsfor colonisationofindigenousplants •Thismethodreducessoilerosionand interceptssedimentflowingdownthe stream •Oncevegetationreachesacertain height,itcanimprovebiotabyshading thestream,loweringwater temperatures,andofferingprotection frompredators REHABILITATION METHODS/TECHNIQUES Revegetationplan/strategyisanother optionthatshouldbeimplemented withsomeofthebelow considerations: •Soilpreparationpriortorevegetation •Useofindigenousseedsandplants •Revegetationmustbebasedonthe specificconditionsofthesite •Seedsmustbethoroughlymixed beforeapplying •Theseedsmustbeappliedaccordingto therequiredrates •Applicationratescanbeincreasedin areasthatareunfavourableorsteep, butnomorethandoublethe recommendations OTHER AVAILABLE INTERVENTIONS Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 27 o An electronic georeferenced image of the rehabilitation with clearly marked areas of intervention; and o A polygon and point shapefile detailing all intervention types and extents done. It should be noted that this option has proven to yield the best results. Note: Intervention extents should be quantifiable for reporting extent per area or ecosystem types, at a national and global scale. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.3. WATER QUALITY 5.3.1. Description Water quality is a concept that refers to the condition of water using various parameters such as chemical, physical, and biological. These parameters indicate levels that pose no risk to human bodies and/or impose restrictions or limitations on the use of water, depending on the purpose of the water usage, while also damaging ecological functioning. Accordingly, there are various criteria for water quality standards such as safety for human consumption, agricultural usage, fishery, recreational, and sustainability of natural aquatic ecosystems. In South Africa, dams are reportedly impacted by sedimentation, mineralisation/salinisation, eutrophication, and AMD. Numerous factors such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), plant nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, nitrogen, potassium, dissolved oxygen, dissolved solids, turbidity, and colour can be utilised to evaluate water quality for dams and lakes (Bhateria and Jain, 2016). 5.3.1.1. Types of Impacts 5.3.1.2. Discharges from Wastewater Treatment Works, Industries, and Mines Rapid urbanisation and population growth exert water demand pressure. In addition, poor operation, and lack of maintenance of WWTWs, industries and mines are considered key drivers of water resource quality decline. This is a major concern that affects water quality and increases treatment costs for water users, which has direct implications for the economy including aquatic ecosystem functioning and subsequent goods and services derived from it. Treatment costs and the quality of domestic water are highly correlated with raw water in dams (Mnyango et. al., 2022; Lencha, 2021; Abdel-Fattah et. al., 2020; COGTA, 2008). 5.3.1.3. Poor water quality attributed to ageing infrastructure. Water quality problems commonly occur during dam ageing, and their respective causes are reported by Straškraba and Tundisi (1999) as follows: • Increased concentrations of organic matter - leached from the soil decomposition of drowned vegetation; • High nutrient concentrations leached from disturbed soil - decomposition of organic matter; • Excessive growth of algae and macrophytes - increased nutrient concentrations from internal and external sources; • Low oxygen concentrations - oxygen is consumed during the decomposition of dissolved and particulate organic matter that enters via the inflow and is released from disturbed soil and decaying vegetation. Autochthonous organic matter increases with increased plant growth; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 28 • Increased colour - indicates the concentration of resistant organic matter. Colour changes occur very slowly. 5.3.1.4. Eutrophication Eutrophication is defined as nutrient enrichment of waters, which results in the stimulation of an array of symptomatic changes, amongst which increased production of algae and aquatic macrophytes, deterioration of water quality, and others found to be undesirable and to interfere with water users (OCED, 1989). The drivers, sources and impacts of eutrophication are as follows: Drivers • Wide-spread discharge of raw or inadequately treated municipal sewage. Raw sewage overflows from urban run-off are also a source of pollution. Diffuse runoff and drainage from fertilised cultivated land. Root causes • Natural causes - nutrient leaching from local geology and soils and vegetation; and • Unnatural causes - atmospheric emissions of ammonia (NH 3 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) resulting in increased loads of NH 3 and NO 2 in precipitation; increased nutrient loads in discharges from WWTWs (both phosphorus and nitrogen species); increased nutrient loads in agriculture, alien vegetation, and urban runoff; excessive nutrient loads in industrial wastewater. Impacts • Ecological impacts - disturbance to biodiversity; • Human and aesthetic impacts - odour and taste problems, morbidity, and mortality due to potential toxic cyanobacteria biotoxins; • Recreational impacts - decreased recreational use, and decreased access to water ways; • Socio-economic impacts - increased stock losses, corrective action costs, and loss of property value; and • Agriculture - algae can block irrigation systems. Macroscopic and fragments of algae block irrigation canal systems causing water loss and damage to infrastructure. (Du Plessis and Davidson, 1990). • Algae growth in canals - canals are man-made, concrete-lined channels (see Figure 13) of water that direct water to dams. Some dams are “off-channel dams”, which means they are not situated in the path of a river and water must be diverted from several nearby rivers through a network of canals to fill the dams. Many canals are plagued by aquatic weeds, such as filamentous algae and aquatic macrophytes. Aquatic weeds cause a host of operational problems in water canals, such as reducing hydraulic capacity and flow speed in affected canals – some to such a degree that the supplied water cannot reach the terminal point of the canal system. Aquatic weeds can replace significant volumes of the capacity of a canal which results in overflows that may contribute to losses out of the system, as well as crop losses due to under-supply of water to irrigators. 5.3.1.5. Salinisation Salinisation is the build-up of salts in a river system to such a level that it poses a threat to the ecological integrity of a dam or lake and interferes with the desirable uses of the water. The drivers, sources, and impacts of salinisation are as follows: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 29 Drivers • Diffuse drainage and wash-off of rainfall-mobilised natural in-situ salts and soils; • Diffuse source sub-surface irrigation return flows; and • Mine water drainage and atmospheric deposits. Root causes • Poor farming practices, such as inappropriate dry-land tillage; • Inappropriate dry-land crops; • Over-irrigation; • Inappropriate irrigation technology; • Lack of intercepting drainage and related evaporation pond infrastructure; and • Inappropriate irrigation water conveyance practices. Impacts • Salinisation changes the chemical composition of freshwater resources such as lakes and dams degrading the quality of water supply to the domestic and agricultural sectors, contributing to loss of biodiversity, taxonomic replacement by halotolerant species (Vengosh, 2003), and creating severe health problems. 5.3.1.6. Acidification The process whereby water and soil become acidic is characterised by an increase in acidity (low pH), increased metal concentrations, increased sulphate concentrations, and/or increased suspended solids. The drivers, sources, and impacts of acidification are as follows: Drivers • Mining source; • Industrial sources and emissions; • Contaminated seepage, leaching, runoff, and spills; and • Wash-off and leaching of widespread acidic atmospheric deposits. Root causes • Lakes become acidic when the input of hydrogen ions exceeds the amount of bases produced in the catchment, by the weathering of rocks, or in the lake itself, through the reduction of acid anions, such as sulphate and nitrate; • Metal contamination and related issues; • Acidic atmospheric deposits; and • Historical and recent lack of precautionary planning, regulation, and enforcement by the relevant authorities, and ring-fenced rehabilitation financing for the necessary rehabilitation by the relevant mining companies. Impacts • Changes in the structure and functioning of ecosystems; • Increased pollution from sulfate and nitric acids; • Damage to forests; and • Chemical, physical, and biological changes lead to the extinction of aquatic organisms. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 30 5.3.1.7. Temperature changes The construction of dams can change the water temperature in a basin. Changes in water temperature may negatively impact the river ecosystems, and as the number of dams increases, this negative impact may accumulate. Abnormal temperature fluctuations affect sensitive species (i.e., Cape Galaxias zebratus, Breede River redfin Pseudobarbus burchelli, Berg River redfin Pseudobarbus burgi, Clanwilliam redfin Pseudobarbus calidus and fiery redfin Pseudobarbus phlegethon) and can lead to algal blooms and decreased oxygen levels. 5.3.2. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Quality Scenario 1: Improvement of degraded water quality in the instream dam due to eutrophication caused by effluent discharged from Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs) and Industries Typical examples of expertise required to undertake rehabilitation for Water Quality component: Hydrologist, Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist, Water Engineer etc. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Carry-out a feasibility study first to diagnose problems (i.e., eutrophication in the lake or dam) and causes (effluent discharge from WWTWs and industries) per specific resource. Understanding the characteristics of lakes and dams (resources) is a critical step to take before choosing and applying an appropriate rehabilitation approach. Step 2: Undertake a desktop assessment to identify the WWTWs and industries (sources) negatively impacting the water quality of the lake or dam. Focus on facilities situated in 1: 100-year floodline of a lake or Dam, and check if there are any other point sources in the vicinity. Step 3: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 4: Utilise tools i.e., Google Earth Pro/Engine, satellite images, GIS, and/or Remote Sensing images to identify changes in land use (land-based) catchment pollution that could be associated with changes in the quality. If possible, check the status of the resource before and after the facility was constructed and compare the changes. Step 5: Conduct a ground survey to identify visible signs of water quality changes in the resource such as: o Extremely foul odour; o Scum formation - scum on the surface of the water will give an indication of organic pollution; o Dead fish; o Leached plants (loss of biodiversity); and o Visible clumps of sewage in the lake or dam and feeding river streams and other wetlands. Step 6: In undertaking the diagnostic assessment of the facility, consideration must be given to the below factors that tend to exacerbate the poor water quality: • The overall integrity and functioning of the WWTWs and industrial facilities; • Challenges associated with power cuts and failures; and • Land-based activities and the overall management of the catchment. Note: Malfunctioning pump stations may form part of direct pollutants to the watercourse and should be addressed as part of overall catchment management of pollution. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 31 PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Planning Phase Step 1: Request local government officials (municipal as well as Provincial DWS/CMAs and DFFE Offices) and local NGOs community forums responsible to assist with identifying point sources of pollution to provide guidance on available regulatory processes. Step 2: Investigate other sources of pollution and water quality e.g., non-point sources of pollution i.e., in the upper and lower reaches of the Dam or Lake. Assessment Phase Step 1: Undertake the following: o Analysis of the historical data (water quality) to see the trend and reference point. o Collect the actual final effluent water samples from the sources i.e., WWTW and industrial facility. o Collect monthly water quality samples from the resource i.e., lake and dam: - 1 upstream of the WWTW and industrial facility discharge points. - 1 downstream of the WWTW and industrial facility discharge points. o Have samples analysed at an accredited laboratory to determine the water quality at the sources and resource, respectively. Step 2: Eutrophication variables that should also be analysed in the sample include but are not limited to chlorophyll-a, total phosphorus concentrations, electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, total suspended solids, pH, temperature (i.e., ambient and water temperature), and dissolved oxygen. Step 3: Compare laboratory-generated water quality data to the expected state for the identification of areas of concern. Data analysis should be compared against the RQOs/ RWQOs, or water quality standards if RQOs/ RWQOs have not yet been established for that catchment. Step 4: Analysis of available data should determine the trophic status of the lake or dam, the WWTW as well as an overall water quality status (upstream and downstream) in terms of salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, turbidity, inorganic nutrients (phosphates, nitrates, silicates, nitrites ammonium, and faecal coliforms against the applicable water quality guidelines per different uses. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objective(s) of rehabilitation must be informed by the vision and goal, data collected during the assessment phase as well as historical data, if available. This process must include conditions and prioritised actions informed by problems (i.e., eutrophication in the lake or dam) and causes (effluent discharge from WWTWs and other pollution point-sources i.e., industrial facilities) identified in the feasibility study. Each prioritised action may have its distinct objective which is set based on any of these categories: Ecological, Infrastructure, social, or recreational. The identified objectives must be checked if they are feasible and affordable, and there must be a reasonable timeframe [(short-term (0-3 years)] or long-term (>5 years) set to allow a lake or dam to respond to the rehabilitation actions. PHASE 4: Execution Techniques/methods available for rehabilitation of the resource i.e., lake or dam: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 32 Short-term solutions to minimise impacts on the lakes and dams include diversion of final effluent from the problematic WWTW. Diversion is attained by diverting 3 the polluted water (effluent) away from the feeding stream/river by insulation. The more common approach in South African conditions is the construction of artificial wetlands which can effectively remove pollutants associated with municipal (including domestic), agricultural, mining, and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater. The WWTW facility and environmental manager, DWS regional office, and DFFE need to collaborate in terms of authorisation processes, and also appoint relevant specialists to undertake the work since rehabilitation is a specialised field. In terms of nutrient enrichment solutions, the DWS has developed the Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa (EMSSA) 4 which guides different strategies to manage eutrophication in the country from Core Strategies (at a National level) to Operational Strategies (at a Localised level) and Supporting Strategies (cross-cutting). DWS further developed the Eutrophication Management Strategy into Practice (EMSIP) report which provides direction on the responsible authorities for each strategic action. This will assist in identifying the relevant authority to approach for further assistance. Both EMSSA and EMSIP are accessible on this website: https://www.dws.gov.za/RDM/SDCCO.aspx • Other rehabilitation management tools available include: • Bio-manipulation is the deliberate alteration of an ecosystem by adding or removing species, especially predators. Bio-manipulation is well-known as a management tool for eutrophic systems. Chlorophyll-a and plant nutrients concentrations should be analysed and serve as an indicator of eutrophic status. An example is hyacinth harvesting – removal of hyacinth to be used to produce compost and fertiliser that can improve soil and nourish plants. Techniques/methods available for rehabilitation of the source i.e., WWTW: • Use of baczyme 5 and other similar biological reagents; • Use of effective Microorganisms (EM) technology. These microbes (EM) consume the organic mass of the wastewater and utilize the nutrients from sewerage for their growth, thereby enhancing the water quality; • Contain and temporarily store the effluent discharged at the source for possible treatment before to discharge; • Implement surface water management measures around the problematic WWTW. This can be achieved through (but not limited) to installation cut off trenches around the WWTW to divert surface runoff to drain back into the natural drainage lines and the natural environment; and • Construct temporary berms along the dam/lake/river to prevent further offsite migration/discharge of effluent ending into the dam/lake/river. 3 The polluted water could be diverted, contained, and temporarily be stored in a holding treatment dam for possible treatment before re-use or discharge. 4 DWS. 2022. Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa. Edition 2, Project Report Number 4.2, Sources Directed Studies Report Number RDM/EMP&S/00/IHS/SDS/0520. Pretoria, South Africa [Internet]. Pretoria. Available from: https://www.dws.gov.za/RDM/SDCCO.aspx 5 Baczyme is a biological solution for sewage waste, septic tanks, and pit toilets. The product contains organic bacteria that decomposes sewage waste into two main components, water, and carbon-dioxide. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 33 Note: In general, the approach of DWS to water quality management is to promote the reduction of discharges of waste or water containing waste into water resources. Where waste discharges are unavoidable, the impact on other users, water resources and the public are controlled by specifying the permissible levels and concentrations of the constituents of the discharge in the conditions of authorisation. In the case of emergency situations, where harmful substances are accidentally or negligently discharged into water resources, the NWA (Chapter 3, Part 5, Section 20) provides for those who have caused the pollution responsible for remedying its effects. However, Catchment Management Agencies may, where necessary, accelerate the clean-up process by arranging for the work to be done by others and recovering any costs incurred from the responsible party. At present all pollution incidents must be reported to the DWS so that appropriate responses can be co-ordinated, in conjunction with the National Disaster Management Centre, with the relevant emergency services and disaster management centres. Ultimately this responsibility will be passed to the catchment management agencies. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring Continuous monitoring of WWTW effluent and changes in the lake or dam (i.e., habitat, odour, and colour) to help determine the water quality and the extent to which treatment is necessary. Monitoring should take place inside the dam close to the wall as well as upstream and downstream of the dam as part of catchment monitoring activities. In addition, remote sensing can be used to monitor changes on the surface of the lake or dam, which might also be used as an early warning tool and to check if there are other possible polluters in the vicinity other than a WWTW. Note: A suitably qualified specialist i.e., Limnologist, should establish the variables needed be monitored. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas. The below are the types of maps that can be produced: o An electronic georeferenced image of the rehabilitation with clearly marked areas of intervention; and o A polygon and point shapefile detailing all intervention types and extents done. It should be noted that this option has proven to yield the best results. Note: Intervention extents should be quantifiable for reporting extent per area or ecosystem types, at a national and global scale. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 34 • Water quality results and data (in-situ and laboratory analysis) evaluating/comparing historical data with new data. 5.4. HABITAT 5.4.1. Description Habitat encompasses all the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that impact or sustain the organisms in an ecosystem. Physical habitat excludes the physiochemical characteristics of the stream water, water chemistry, clarity, temperature, quantity, and light intensity (Belletti et al., 2017). Instead, it includes geomorphologic and biological characteristics that determine habitat structure and thus, have an impact on energy inputs. As an example, the largest natural freshwater lake in South Africa (i.e., Lake Sibaya), separated from the ocean by forested dunes; includes areas of swamp forest and wet grassland. A large variety of endangered or endemic species of reptiles, fish, birds, mammals, and plants occur. The lake is important for numerous species of breeding birds and supports the second largest population of hippopotamus. The lake supports a diverse zooplankton fauna, 15 species of aquatic and 43 species of terrestrial molluscs, as well as flora and other fauna unique to South Africa (DWS, 2015). 5.4.2. Types of Habitat Impact 5.4.2.1. Sediment Trapping by dams. In a natural river basin, sediment is transported through river basins from rapid erosion caused by human activities at headwaters downstream to the river. Dams disrupt the natural continuity of sediment transport through a river basin because they trap sand that moves along the channel bed. Dam sediment trapping can have severe consequences for the downstream river. As dams trap and begin to accumulate sediment, the trapped sediment begins to interfere with the ecological functioning of the system (Blum and Roberts 2009). The trapped sediment can begin to interfere with the functioning of the dam, long before the water storage capacity itself is seriously compromised (Randle et al., 2021). Other consequences of sedimentation in dams are reported as follows: • Storage capacity loss - the most direct consequence of sedimentation in dams is the corresponding decrease in capacity. Sediment deposition in the dams reduces and eventually eliminates usable storage capacity, rendering the dam unusable for water supply or flood control. In addition, sedimentation leads to encroachment of dam basins by reeds. This has a snowball effect on the system i.e., the more sediment, the more reeds, and the more sediment as the reed beds lower flow velocity with associated increase in sedimentation. • Intakes and outlets - Sediments can block or clog intakes and low-level outlets at dams, and clog or otherwise damage gates not designed for sediment passage. • Ecology - accumulation of sediment in dams affects the ecosystem structure and function. The below are examples of how ecosystem functioning could potentially be affected: o Excessive sediments can bury and suffocate fish eggs and bury the gravel nests they rest in; o Suspended sediment in high concentrations can shift plants, invertebrates, and insects in the stream bed; o Suspended sediment can affect the food web adversely in the dam - low light penetration can reduce algae biomass as primary producer and can interfere with predator and prey interaction. o Food source i.e., fish can be affected; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 35 o Substrate is generated for submersed aquatic vegetation (SAV) to proliferate. This can lead to a problematic infestation of SAV resulting in further impact on the operation of a dam. In addition to the above, changes in sediment loading and sediment accumulation can dramatically alter reservoir ecology, affecting species composition and both recreational and subsistence fishing. • Energy loss - Loss of storage eliminates the potential to capture high flows for subsequent energy generation and flood attenuation. • Navigation - Both commercial and recreational navigation can be severely impaired by sediment accumulation. Recreational access can be impaired as sediment accumulates at marinas and boat ramps and provide substrate for nuisance vegetation growth. 5.4.2.2. Habitat modification, degradation, and loss In addition, the key pressures on South Africa’s freshwater lakes are reported to be changes to the hydrological regime, water pollution, habitat modification, invasive species, and climate change. The key drivers of habitat loss are land clearing for croplands, human settlements, plantation forestry, mining, and infrastructure development. These activities have led to the loss of 21% of South Africa’s natural terrestrial ecosystem extent. Habitat loss is also usually associated with habitat fragmentation, which further impacts ecological functioning and viability of species, particularly in the context of climate change and biological invasions (SANBI, 2019). 5.4.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Habitat Scenario 1: Rehabilitation and management of sedimentation for ecological function of the aquatic ecosystem and improvement of dam storage capacity Note: Instream dam construction on rivers intercepts sediments and causes reduced sediment supply/discharge into rivers and the sea i.e., estuaries. In addition, because of dams, the sediment supply to rivers and/or estuary and its adjacent coast is reduced. The above aspects are interrelated and therefore a systems approach is followed in the development of the scenario for management of sedimentation in dams, rivers, and/or estuaries. All these aspects are taken into account during a rehabilitation project and should not be considered in isolation. Estuary and watercourse are separately defined in the NWA. These definitions imply that estuaries are not seen as watercourses. Therefore Section 21 (c) and (i) activities will not be regulated in estuaries unless there is a freshwater link i.e, estuaries with salt marshes form part of the tidal zone, but there may be a strong freshwater inflow on the other side. Therefore, any activity from the 500 m of the freshwater zone would trigger Section 21 (c) and (i) activities. Typical examples of expertise required to undertake rehabilitation for Habitat component: Ecologist, Botanist, Hydrologist, Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist, Water Engineer etc. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the dam in question within the river channel that is affected by sedimentation. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 36 Step 3: At a desktop level, Utilise tools i.e., Google Earth Pro/Engine, satellite images, GIS, and/or Remote Sensing images to gain insight and evaluation of the sediment deposition patterns in a reservoir. Step 4: Using the tools mentioned in Step 2, identify the possible source(s) of sedimentation by examining the following three main aspects: o Characteristics of the source (i.e., the catchment); o Characteristics of the sediment transfer into the dam (i.e., the transportation mode); o Characteristics of the dam. Step 5: Describe the specific details of the dam affected in terms of the below-given characteristics. This information is important to guide the recommendation of the types of interventions that must be considered through a site-specific approach. o Land use in the catchment; o Sediment loads, siltation rates, and sediment retention time; o Economic, ecological, and cultural importance; o Current storage volume vs sediment load; and o Flood peaks and volumes. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Undertake a site inspection to collate pertinent information and data regarding the dam in question. The information and data to be collected may include but are not limited to the following: o Catchment hydrology inclusive of mean annual runoff (MAR), mean annual precipitation (MAP), and catchment yield; o Land use to determine the type of management practices i.e., communal land will differ from the types of management practices on commercial agriculture land; o Sediment characteristics (such as particle size grading, hazardous nature); o Sediment management design features (sediment flush gates, bypass channels, sediment traps) and the functionality of these, if there are any in place and o Erosion risk. Step 2: Determine the type of dam in question (i.e., small, or big) 6 . The dam type will dictate the techniques to be employed for rehabilitation. Less significant dams on small catchments could be assessed using simpler tools, however large dams with high economic importance should be examined in much greater detail with more exact estimates of sediment impacts. Step 3: Determine the main source(s) of sedimentation i.e., erosion, land use impacts, climate change, alien vegetation, and environmental degradation. Step 4: Based on comprehensive information and data acquired in Step 1-3 above, determine the main source(s) of sedimentation (i.e., erosion) and recommend the most feasible intervention. Below are examples of some broad categories of available sedimentation management strategies: o Reduce sediment yield from the catchment; o Route sediments around or through the storage pool to minimise depositions; and o Remove deposited sediment. 6 Small dam – wall height lower than 12m; Big dam – wall height more than 30m Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 37 PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of the rehabilitation of dams must be clearly defined and set. The objectives for rehabilitation must be informed by the data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. Some of the most common aims and objectives of rehabilitation of sedimentation of dams are to: • Reduce sediment yield to dams by erosion control in the upstream river basin; • Provide a passageway i.e., a fishway for migratory fish; • Restore sediment continuity, move sediment around or through the dam via sediment bypass, sluicing, and flushing; • Install an upstream sediment trap which can be periodically cleaned, if applicable; and • Operate dam and associated structures such as weirs, canals etc. to natural flow and temperature regimes. Figure 13 A and B below illustrates a typical examples of different canal structures. Note: • Figure 13 A - Station ID: N2H010; Place: Left Canal from Dam located within the Mzimvubu-Tsitsikamma WMA 7. • Figure 13 B – Station ID: X1H034; Place: Left Canal from Vygeboom Dam, located within the Inkomati-Usuthu WMA 3. Figure 13: Examples of a canal structures. Source: DWS Hydrological Services website, 2024 PHASE 4: Execution Rehabilitation methods/techniques available for control and management of sedimentation are divided into three broad main categories of strategies 7 , namely reduce sediment yield from the catchment; route sediments around; and remove deposited sediment. A combination of these approaches may be implemented. Reduce sediment yield • Sediment delivery to a reservoir can be reduced by techniques such as soil conservation measures (erosion control, reforestation, or revegetation), and upstream sediment trapping. 7 Water Research Commission (WRC). 2006. Reservoirs and their management: a review of the literature since 1990 A B Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 38 Route sediments • Seasonal drawdown - the reservoir is partially or completely emptied during the flood season at a predetermined time each year. This serves to increase flow velocity with a corresponding decrease in retention time and sediment trapping; • Sluicing - this is an operational technique aimed at reducing the trap efficiency of the reservoir by releasing most of the sediment load with the flow through the dam before the sediment particles settle. This is usually accomplished by operating the reservoir at a lower level during the flood season to maintain sufficient sediment transport capacity through the reservoir; • Sediment by-pass - when topographic conditions are favourable, a large capacity channel or tunnel can be constructed to bypass sediment-laden flow around an instream storage reservoir. Nagle Dam in South Africa uses this method; • Offstream reservoir - since inflow can be controlled at the diversion point, an off-stream reservoir can be prevented from receiving sediment-laden water in various ways. An advantage is that downstream transport of bed material can be maintained; • Venting of turbid density currents - turbidity currents can be vented from reservoirs by opening a low-level outlet at the dam. In some reservoirs, it has been possible to release more than half the total sediment load in an individual flood by venting the turbidity current. Successful venting depends on properly located low-level outlets that are opened in time to release the current, using a discharge rate that matches the turbidity current flow. Removal of sediments • Hydraulic flushing - flow velocities in a reservoir are increased to such an extent that deposited sediments are remobilised and transported through bottom outlets. Unlike sediment routing which attempts to prevent deposition during flood events, flushing uses drawdown and emptying to scour and release sediment after it has been deposited; • Hydraulic dredging and dry excavation - uses a mechanical pump to supply the energy to remove deposited sediment. To retain capacity, dredging must continue for as long as the reservoir is to remain in service. A suitable disposal site for sediment is required; • Hydrosuction sediment removal systems (HSRS) - this system holds promise as a method of removing deposited or incoming sediments from reservoirs using the energy represented by the difference between water levels upstream and downstream from the dam. There are two types of hydrosuction sediment removal: o Hydrosuction dredging in which deposited sediment is dredged and transported to either a downstream receiving stream or to a holding treatment basin; o Hydrosuction bypassing in which incoming sediment is transported without deposition, past the dam to the downstream receiving stream. • Construct a sediment trap – Sediment traps can be constructed to limit the sediment load to a waterbody. The design must accommodate easy cleaning. There are other available adaptive management strategies such as redistributing sediment; increasing storage, increasing efficiency, modifying infrastructure, adjusting to reduce benefits, and repurposing or decommissioning. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring should entail: • Monitoring of rehabilitated dams must be undertaken on an annual basis to ensure that intervention methods employed are adequate and effective; • Water quality monitoring downstream of the dams due to disturbed sediments. Monitoring parameters and frequency are as follows: o Suspended sediment concentration – Monthly Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 39 o Sediment Quality – Annually o Riparian Vegetation/Habitat – Annually • Additional measures must be implemented in the event the monitoring results show no substantial changes i.e., if erosion persists after revegetation, other erosion control measures must be considered. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Note: Monitoring and evaluation should be conducted by a suitably qualified specialist i.e., Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas. The below are the types of maps that can be produced: o An electronic georeferenced image of the rehabilitation with clearly marked areas of intervention; and o A polygon and point shapefile detailing all intervention types and extents done. It should be noted that this option has proven to yield the best results. Note: Intervention extents should be quantifiable for reporting extent per area or ecosystem types, at a national and global scale. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.4.4. Special considerations to be applied for the Rehabilitation of Habitat Consideration must be given to the below list during the rehabilitation of the habitat: • Plant species plans must be drawn up by the relevant specialist i.e., Ecologist, Botanist, and Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist for approval and implementation; and • Constructed wetlands and nature-based solutions should be included as part of rehabilitation measures. 5.5. BIOTA 5.5.1. Description Biota/aquatic biota is described as the community of plants and animals with a biotic integrity, which reflects the health, community structure and distribution which is dependent on habitat (DWAF, 1999). A habitat is made of physical (abiotic) and living (biotic) factors. Abiotic factors are physical, non-living components that affect living organisms. Abiotic factors include: • Light intensity; • Moisture (availability of water); • Humidity; • Salinity; • pH; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 40 • Temperature. Biotic factors are the living parts of the ecosystem with which an organism must interact. Biotic factors include: • Predators; • Prey; • Food sources; and • Parasites. Examples of biota are as follows: • Burchell's redfin (Pseudobarbus burchelli) which is a freshwater fish species in the family Cyprinidae. P. burchelli which are recognised as “critical endangered’’ species. • Palmiet plant (Prionium serratum) in the family of Juncaceae and play an important ecological role in stabilising the riverbed and riverbanks from erosion. 5.5.2. Types of Impacts 5.5.2.1. Impediment impacts on migratory biota species. One key ecological impact of dams is blocking the passage-way for migratory fish. While dams block fish migration in rivers globally e.g., the Clanwilliam sandfish - Labeo Seeberi that seek to swim upstream from the sea where they spend their adult life to their natal freshwater streams to spawn but are blocked by dams (Lucas et al., 2008). However, many fish species in other river systems also depend on migration, often long-distance, to reach spawning grounds, and when they cannot reach their spawning areas, the fish runs can become extinct. Likewise, populations of catadromous fish, notably eels, which reproduce in the ocean, but spend their adult lives in freshwater until they redescend seaward to spawn, have been impacted by dams that interfere with their longitudinal movements. 5.5.2.2. Impacts of alien species (animal and plant species) The construction of dams, reservoirs, and the accompanying hydrological manipulation has been instrumental in increasing the susceptibility of river systems in South Africa to invasions by introduced fish (De Moor 1996; Gehrke and Harris, 2001), as well as range extensions to native species e.g., the movement of Clarias from the Orange River to the Fish River. 5.5.2.3. Loss of ecological connectivity for other biota like fish, hippo, crocodile, crustaceans Dams and weirs have effects on physical habitat and biota immediately above the dam; and connectivity, habitat, and biota below the dam. Weirs have a negative impact on the ecology of a stream when they prevent the migration of biota up and down the river (WRC, 2016). This can be mitigated by including a “fish ladder,” a channel carrying the low flow with a lot of baffle plates to slow down the velocity of the water so that biota can still migrate over the weir. Figure 14 illustrates an example of a fish ladder (Station ID: C2H061; Place: Vaal at Klipplaatdrift) located within the Middle Vaal WMA. Figure 15 is the Google Earth image produced using the coordinates of Station ID: C2H061 to illustrate an aerial view of the fish ladder. Note: A fish ladder can, however, also increase the vulnerability of migrating fish as they are more exposed to piscivores. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 41 Figure 14: A typical example of a fish ladder Source: DWS Hydrological Services website, 2024 Figure 15: Google Earth image depicting fish ladder. 5.5.3. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Biota Scenario 1: Re-establish biota migratory routes (i.e., fishways) Typical examples of expertise required to undertake rehabilitation for Biota component: Hydrologist, Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist, Ichthyologist, Water Engineer etc. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase River flow direction Biota migratory direction up the fish ladder Aerial view of fish ladder depicted in Figure 14 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 42 Step 1: At a desktop level, determine and identify the instream dam in which the migratory are affected. Step 2: Initiate communications with the responsible authorities (i.e., local and district municipality as well as DWS Regional Office) responsible for the catchment in which the resource affected is located. Step 3: Describe the specific catchment details of the river affected within which the instream dam is located – Primary or Secondary catchment. Step 4: Describe the specific reach of the river affected within which the instream dam is located – Upper, Middle, and Lower reaches. Step 5: Identify the relevant fish species occurring in the system from historical data and in-situ monitoring. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Assess the ecological need for a fishway at an instream barrier. Step 2: If the assessment result proves that there is no need for a fishway consider the following alternatives and mitigation measures: o Artificial spawning beds; o Captive breeding; and o Capture and transport. Step 3: If there is a need for a fishway, quantify the ecological impact of the instream barrier on migratory species present – i.e., the importance of providing a fishway at the barrier. Step 4: Once the need and importance are identified and determined, conduct a cost-benefit analysis of an effective fishway to be designed and constructed at the instream barrier. Step 5: Prepare a motivation and secure appropriate funding. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation of the impacts of instream barriers on biota migratory routes must be clearly defined and set. The objectives for rehabilitation must be informed by the data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. Some of the most common aims and objectives of rehabilitation of instream barriers are to: • Provide migration routes to some species for spawning, feeding, dispersion after spawning, colonisation after droughts; and • Provide migration routes between fresh water and the sea or saline waters. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Based on the information gathered, the relevant specialist i.e., Engineer and/or Aquatic Specialist (Ichthyologist) must design a fishway. Step 2: The fishway to be designed will depend on the site conditions. Based on the conditions, the the relevant specialist i.e., the Engineer and/or Aquatic Specialist must design the fishway general hydraulics 8 Step 3: The fishway designs must be informed by the following key factors: o Species composition; o Types of migration; o Season/time period species are functional; o Swimming ability of species; 8 WRC. 2007. Guidelines for the planning, design, and operation of fishways in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 43 o Swimming speed of species (“burst speed”); o Endurance of species; o Physiological factors of species i.e., aerobic vs anaerobic muscles; and o Current velocities and turbulence factors. Step 4: The fishway design process must be supported by and include the following: o Ecological, Hydrological and Engineering Studies undertaken by various suitably qualified specialists; o Analysis of the barrier hydraulics; o Selection of a suitable location for the proposed fishway; o Hydraulic analysis of the selected fishway type(s); and o Provision for maintenance of the fishway. Step 5: Identify the appropriate fishway design suitable for the site-specific conditions. Step 6: The fishway must be constructed according to the approved standards and must be informed by the selected designs, dimensions, and all the results of analysis conducted in Step 3. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting Table 6 contains the key biological/ecological and physical parameters prescribed by WRC 9 which must be monitored downstream, upstream, and in the dam/lake. Table 4: Key biological, ecological, and physical parameters prescribed for monitoring Source: WRC, 2007 Biological/Ecological Parameters Physical Parameters • Size and numbers of species that successfully pass through the biota barrier. • Size and numbers of species that attempt to use the fishway (i.e., are actively migrating and enter the down-stream end of the fishway). • Size and numbers of species that actively migrate but are blocked by the barrier in question. • Proportion of species that enter the fishway. • Diatoms (i.e., bioindicators for the assessment of water quality) • Water discharge rates down the biota barrier. • Internal hydraulics in the biota barrier i.e., speed, turbulence, and depths. • The change of discharge down the biota barrier. • Levels of stream flow or stages of the flood hydrograph where peak migrations in the river take place. • The time of day/night/season) when migrations of the various species occur. • Water quality i.e., temperature, conductivity, pH, turbidity. • Barometric pressure, air temperature. Note: The monitoring programme presented above is generic in nature and attempts to assess the performance of a fishway as per the scenario in question. The list of parameters in Table 6 is by no means exhaustive and is relevant for the scenario in question. It should be noted that carefully planned monitoring programmes and more sophisticated monitoring methods are required to assess the effectiveness of fishways in South Africa, to improve their design and to optimise their management. Monitoring programmes also vary from site to site depending on the site-specific conditions of the area affected. In addition, to better understand the environmental indicators that stimulate fish migrations, a host of environmental parameters (abiotic and biotic) need to be measured during the monitoring period, which should be performed over months rather than weeks. It is recommended that the monitoring parameters to be developed by the users of the RMGs should be aligned to the gazetted RQOs of the area in question, as this is one of the critical RDM 9 WRC. 2007. Guidelines for the planning, design, and operation of fishways in South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 44 measures/tools for protection of water resources. The monitoring parameters developed by the users should also form part of River Eco-status Monitoring Programme (REMP), where applicable. REMP is a programme for monitoring the ecological conditions of the river ecosystems based on the drivers and responses in the river. REMP is aimed to establish the reference condition (usually a natural or close to natural condition) of the river or reach that will used to assess the temporal conditions of that river or reach with the consideration of both the biotic (instream and riparian biota) and abiotic (hydrology, geomorphology, and physico-chemical conditions) factors of that river. Indices of REMP include: • South African Scoring System (SASS) – for macro-invertebrates • Macro-invertebrate Response Assessment Index (MIRAI) – for macro-invertebrates • Fish Response Assessment Index (FRAI) – for fish • Vegetation Response Assessment Index (VEGRAI) – for riparian vegetation • Index of Habitat Integrity (IHI)– for habitat integrity • Hydrology Assessment Index (HAI) – for hydrology • Geomorphology Assessment Index (GAI) – for geomorphology • Physico-Chemical Assessment Index (PAI) – for physico-chemical water quality Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas. The below are the types of maps that can be produced: o An electronic georeferenced image of the rehabilitation with clearly marked areas of intervention; and o A polygon and point shapefile detailing all intervention types and extents done. It should be noted that this option has proven to yield the best results. Note: Intervention extents should be quantifiable for reporting extent per area or ecosystem types, at a national and global scale. • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date. 5.5.4. Special considerations to be applied for the Rehabilitation of Biota Consideration must be given to the below list during the rehabilitation of the biota: • Floating wetlands and scientific buffers for biodiversity and water quality enhancement. This also plays a role in pest controls on farms, dams, and betterment of conservation efforts, aesthetics, eco-tourism. Biological Response Indices Driver Indices Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 45 6. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD The lakes and dams RMGs have been developed to address characteristics of watercourses, namely hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota through a phased approach. In implementing these guidelines, below is a summary of recommendations to users: • Plant species plans must be compiled by the relevant specialist within the field i.e., Ecologist, Botanist, and Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist. • Alien vegetation must be replaced with the appropriate indigenous vegetation. This is especially important when trees are removed, indigenous tree species must be brought in. Furthermore, alien plant management must be conducted in a phased approach both for eradication and revegetation. Revegetation and re-planting plans must be compiled and submitted to the relevant authorities i.e., DWS and DFFE for approval. • Invasive indigenous vegetation should be managed by suitable trained Aquatic Scientist / Limnologist who are registered as professional PCO’s (Pest Control Operators) with the Department of Agriculture (Registrar: Act No: 36 of 1947). • Scientific Buffer zones – when determining these buffers zones the user must consult the Buffer Zone Guidelines (Buffer Zone Guidelines for Rivers, compiled by WRC, 2017) - guidelines to guide activities planned around and adjacent to rivers. They are to be used and applied as part of a broader suite of tools to ensure that water resource management is appropriately integrated into development planning and land use management. • Constructed wetlands must be considered as a rehabilitation option for all characteristics of watercourses and their status must not be affected by the rehabilitation activities undertaken. • The protection and conservation of wetlands upstream of Lakes and Dams is recommended since wetlands are known to act as natural filters for polluted water. • The identified objectives must be checked for feasibility and affordability. There must be a reasonable timeframe set to allow the river/dam to respond to the rehabilitation actions. For instance, WRC (2004) adopted Rutherfurd et. al., (2000) method of setting a timeframe: a short-term objective for the completion of the rehabilitation output and a long-term objective for the evaluation of the effect of the work. • Ensure that carrying capacity and livestock grazing programme are determined and implemented. • Implement nature-friendly fencing and optimise the positioning of fencing for better connectivity up and downstream of dams. • Fishway designs must be made as natural as possible to ensure no access for people or predators to predate and poach. Monitoring of fishways is recommended and old fishways must be upgraded to natural systems. • Rehabilitation funding models should be developed and be linked to existing policy statements. • Consideration must be given to translating the guidelines to be developed into Policy. • Consideration must be given to adopting international best practices for demolition or destruction of dams and weirs as rehabilitation measures where impacts are too great and not mitigatable. • The users of the guidelines should consider gathering of historical data and information from the databases to make informed decisions i.e., assess causes related to changes, which led to the required rehabilitation efforts. Once rehabilitation interventions are implemented, the information should be archived in the relevant databases in order to be accessed by users in the future. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 46 • Collaboration between the DWS, other government departments and private institutions is recommended to find the best way possible to assist each other in implementing rehabilitation interventions. • Rehabilitation of waterways should consider including nature-based solutions and green infrastructure as far as possible and should be catchment based rather than site specific. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 47 REFERENCE LIST Abdel-Fattah, M.K. Abd-Elmabod, S.K. Aldosari, A.A. Elrys, A.S.; Mohamed, E.S. 2020. Multivariate Analysis for Assessing Irrigation Water Quality: A Case Study of the Bahr Mouise Canal, Eastern Nile Delta. Water, 12, 2537. Ashraf, F.B. Haghighi, A.T. Riml, J. Mathias Kondolf, G. Kløve, B. and Marttila, H. 2022. A Method for Assessment of Sub-Daily Flow Alterations Using Wavelet Analysis for Regulated Rivers. Bhateria, R. and Jain, D. 2016. Water quality assessment of lake water: a review. Sustainable Water Resources Management. 2(2): 161–173. Blum, M.D. and Roberts, H.H. 2009. Drowning of the Mississippi Delta Due to Insufficient Sediment Supply and Global Sea-Level Rise.Nat. Geosci, 2, 488–491. Chamier J, Schachtschneider K, Le Maitre D, Ashton P and Van Wilgen B. 2012. Impacts of invasive alien plants on water quality, with particular emphasis on South Africa. Csiki, S. and Rhoads, B.L. 2010. Hydraulic and geomorphological effects of run-of-river dams. Progress in Physical Geography. De Moor, I.J. 1996. Case studies of the exotic species by four alien fish species (Cyprinus carpio, Micropterus salmoides, Oreochromis macrochir and O. mossambicus) of freshwater ecosystems in Southern Africa. Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs. Municipal Infrastructure: An Industry Guide to Infrastructure Service Delivery Levels and Unit Costs [Internet]; Pretoria, South Africa. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). 2002. National Eutrophication Monitoring Programme. Implementation Manual. Available online: https://www.dws.gov.za/iwqs/eutrophication/NEMP/EutrophicationMonitoringProgramme. pdf Doyle, M.W., Stanley, E.H., Orr, C.H., Selie, A.R., Sethi, S.A. and Harbor, J.M. 2005. Stream ecosystem response to small dam removal: Lessons from the Heartland. Geomorphology. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2015. Reserve determination study of selected surface water and groundwater resources in the Usuthu/Mhlathuze Water Management Area. Lake Sibaya EWR – Volume 3 - Specialist Reports. Produced by Tlou Consulting (Pty) Ltd and Southern Waters Ecological Research and Consulting cc. Report no: RDM/WMA6/CON/COMP/1813. DWS. 2022. Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa. Edition 2, Project Report Number 4.2, Sources Directed Studies Report Number RDM/EMP&S/00/IHS/SDS/0520. Pretoria, South Africa [Internet]. Pretoria. Available from: https://www.dws.gov.za/RDM/SDCCO.aspx DWS. (2024). Hydrological Services website. Available at: https://www.dws.gov.za/Hydrology/ (Accessed on 22 March 2024) Gehrke, P.C. and Harris, J.H. 2001. Regional-scale effects of flow regulation on lowland rivierine fish communities in New South Wales, Australia. Kaufmann, P.R., Levine, P., Robinson, E.G., Seeliger, C. and Peck, D.V. 1999. Quantifying Physical Habitat in Wadeable Streams. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. EPA/620/R-99/003. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 48 Keller, A., Adamaitis, C., Alessi on, P., Anderson, S., Got, E., Gray, S., Gurrola, L. and Morell, K. 2020. Application in Geomorphology. Mendeley. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.04.001 Khatri, N., and Tyagi, S. 2014. Influences of Natural and Anthropogenic Factors on Surface and Groundwater Quality in Rural and Urban Areas. Frontiers in Life Science, 8, 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/21553769.2014.933716 Kondolf, G. M. 1997. Hungry Water: Effects of Dams and Gravel Mining on River Channels Kondolf, G.M. Boulton, A.J. O’Daniel, S. Poole, G.C. Rahel, F.J. Stanley, E.H. Wohl, E.; Bång, A. Carlstrom, J. and Cristoni, l. 2006. Process-Based Ecological River Restoration: Visualising Three-Dimensional Connectivity and Dynamic Vectors to Recover Lost Linkages. Ecol. Soc. 2006, 11, 5. Kondolf, G. M. 2008. Hungry Water: Managing Sediment in Rivers. Presentation to the MRC Sediment Workshop October 2008, University of California Berkeley. Kondolf, G.M. and Podolak, K. 2014. Space and Time Scales in Human-Landscape Systems. Kondolf, M. and Yi, J. Dam. 2022. Dam Renovation to Prolong Reservoir Life and Mitigate Dam Impacts Lencha, S.M., Tränckner, J. Dananto, M. 2021. Assessing the Water Quality of Lake Hawassa Ethiopia— Trophic State and Suitability for Anthropogenic Uses—Applying Common Water Quality Indices. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18, 8904. Lucas, M. and Barras, E. 2008. Migration of Freshwater Fishes; John Wiley and Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA. Meitzen, K.M., Doyle, M.W., Thoms, M.C., and Burns, C.E. 2013. Geomorphology within the interdisciplinary science of environmental flows. Geomorphology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.03.013 Mueller, M., Pander, J. and Geist, J. 2011. The effects of weirs on structural stream habitat and biological communities. Journal of Applied Ecology. Mnyango SS, Thwala M, Oberholster PJ, Truter CJ. 2022. Using Multiple Indices for the Water Resource Management of a Monomictic Man-Made Dam in Southern Africa. Water 2022, Vol 14, Page 3366 [Internet]. 2022 Oct 23 [cited 2022 Oct 23];14(21):3366. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1902438 Nearing, M.A. Pruski, F.F. and O’neal, M.R. 2004. Expected Climate Change Impacts on Soil Erosion Pejchar L. and Mooney HA. 2009. Invasive species, ecosystem services and human well-being. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. Rodriguez L.F. 2006. Can invasive species facilitate native species? Evidence of how, when, and why these impacts occur. Biological Invasions. Pohlon, E., Augspurger, C., Risse-Buhl, U., Arle, J., Willkomm, M., Halle, S. and Kiisel, K. 2007. Querying the Obvious: Lessons from a Degraded Stream. Restoration Ecology. Randle, T.J. Morris, G.L. Tullos, D.D. Weirich, F.H. Kondolf, G.M. Moriasi, D.N. Annandale, G.W. Fripp, J. Minear, J.T. and Wegner, D.L. 2021. Sustaining United States Reservoir Storage Capacity: Need for a New Paradigm. Rolls, R.J. and Bond, N.K. 2017. Chapter 4 – Environmental Flows and Ecological Effects of Flow Alteration in Surface Water Ecosystems. Water for the Environment. Pg. 65-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803907-6.00004-8 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 49 South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2019. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. Stanley, E.H. and Doyle, M.W. 2002. A geomorphic perspective on nutrient retention following dam removal. BioScience. Straškraba, M. and Tundisi, J.G. 1999. Reservoir water quality management. International Lake Environment Committee Foundation, Shiga, Japan. Water Research Commission. 2004. A River Rehabilitation Planning Pilot Trial: The Ihlanza River, East London, South Africa. Based on the Australian River Rehabilitation Guidelines Water Research Commission (WRC). 2006. Reservoirs and their management: a review of the literature since 1990. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Project No.: 1161/1/03). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2010. Eutrophication Research Impact Assessment (WRC Project No. K8/897). Pretoria. Available: https://www.wrc.org.za/wp- content/uploads/mdocs/TT%20461-10%20water%20quality%20management.pdf [2023, January 19]. Water Research Commission (WRC). 2016. The Development of a Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation in South Africa. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Report No. TT 646/15). Wessels, P. and Rooseboom, A. 2009. Flow-gauging structures in South African rivers. Part 1: An overview --- Document Separator --- Published by The Department of Water and Sanitation Private Bag X313 Pretoria, 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: (012) 336 7500/ +27 12 336 7500 Fax: (012) 336 6731/ +27 12 336 6731 Copyright Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner without full acknowledgment of the source. This report should be cited as: Department of Water and Sanitation. 2025. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater. Report 2.4. Sources Directed Studies. Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422. Pretoria, South Africa Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 ii DOCUMENT INDEX REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR WATER RESOURCES REPORT SERIES REPORT TITLE DWS REPORT NUMBER 1. Project Planning Reports 1.1 Project Plan RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0120 1.2 Gap Analysis Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0220 1.3 Framework Document RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDC/0121 1.4 ToR for PSC members RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0221 1.5 Inception Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0321 1.6 Situation Assessment Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0421 2. Development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines 2.1 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0122 2.2 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0222 2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0322 2.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater resources RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 2.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0123 3. Implementation Report 3.1 Guidelines into Practice RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0423 4. Project Administration Reports 4.1 Project Close-out Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0523 4.1.1 Capacity Building 4.1.2 Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 iii DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL Authors: Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane, Dr Lindelani Lalumbe, Dr Stanley Nzama, Mr Samkele Mnyango, Ms Mmaphefo Thwala, Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Contributors: Ms Adaora Okonkwo, Dr Chantel Petersen, Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola, Ms Sivashni Naicker, Ms Melissa Lintnaar-Strauss, Mr Shane Nethenzheni Specialist Reviewers: Dr Harrison Pienaar, Mr Yazeed Van Wyk, Dr Shafick Adams, Dr Surina Esterhuyse, Professor Thokozani Kanyerere Project Name: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 Report version: Version 2.8 Date: August 2025 _________________________________________________________________________________ Department of Water and Sanitation Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Compiled by: ..................................................... Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane (Project Manager) Approved for DWS by: .................................................... Director: Sources Directed Studies Ms Tovhowani Nyamande (Project Leader) .................................................... Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Ms Ndileka Mohapi Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DWS Project Administration Committee (PAC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Sub- Technical Task Team (Sub-TT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Dr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Technical Task Team (TTT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 v Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Project Management Committee (PMC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Project Leader (Chairperson) Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 vi Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Ms Caroline Shai Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 vii Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Project Steering Committee Members (PSC) DWS Representative Ms Mohapi Ndileka Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Chairperson Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Project Leader Ms Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Regional Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: Northwest Regional Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Regional Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Regional Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Dr Mr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 viii Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Melissa Lintnaar-Strauss Scientist Manager: Western Cape Regional Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring & Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Regional Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Thembisa Torch Assistant Director: DWS: Berg-Olifants Proto- CMA Member Ms Lebogang Matlala Director: DWS Water Resource Classification Member Ms Anet Muir Chief Director: Water Use Compliance & Enforcement Member Ms Barbara Weston Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Yakeen Atwaru Director: Reserve Determination Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Olifants Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Water Sector Representatives Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 ix Dr Andrew Wood Principal Scientist: SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd Member Mr Lehlohonolo Phadima General Manager: Scientific Services: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Dr Eddie Riddell Water Resources Manager: South African National Parks Member Mr Ntsikelelo Wiseman Dlulane Acting Chief Executive Officer: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Phil McLean Task Manager: Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Pollution and Chemicals Directorate Member Mr Stanley Tshitwamulomoni Director: Water Sources and Wetlands Conservation: DFFE Member Dr Dhiraj Rama Executive Director: Association of Cementitious Material Producers (ACMP) Member Mr Kobus Fell Advisor: National Water Monitor Non-Profit Company Member Mr Donovan Gillman President: Institute for Landscape Architecture in South Africa Member Mr Reginald Mabalane Policy Analyst: Mineral Council of South Africa Member Ms Busisiwe Mahlangu Control Environmental Officer: Inkomati-Usuthu Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Sihle Ximba Acting Water Care Manager: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Bonani Madikizela Research Manager: Water Research Commission Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Hermien Oberholzer Senior Principal Engineer: Anglo American Platinum Member Ms Stephinah Mudau Head Environment: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Mr Matome Makwela Senior Policy Analyst: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Ms Jenifer Zungu Project Leader: South African National Biodiversity Institute Member Mr Douglas Macfarlane Chief Scientist: Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services Member Mr Andre Beegte Implementation Manager – Wetlands: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Debbie Muir Biodiversity Officer Control: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Kate Snaddon Senior Consultant: Freshwater Consulting Member Dr Yolandi Schoeman Postdoctoral Scientist and Ecological Engineer: University of the Free State Member Dr Chantel Petersen Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Dr Vhahangwele Masindi Research and Development Manager: Magalies Water Member Ms Kim Hodgson Scientist – Water Quality Management: Umgeni Water Member Ms Lilian Siwelane Control Environmental Officer: DWS: North- West, Institutional Management Member Mr Mashudu Rafundisani Senior Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Mpho Zwane Senior Specialist - Water Quality Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 x Ms Esmeralda Ramburran Deputy Director - Operational Support and Planning: Department of Forestry Fisheries and the Environment Member Mr Norman Nokeri Manager - Strategy and Planning: Lepelle Northern Water Member Mr Pule Makena Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Member Mr Reveck Hariram Senior Water Quality Advisor: Rand Water Member Mr Theolin Naidoo Senior Scientist: Institute of Natural Resources NPC Member Mr Wiseman Ndlala Senior Specialist - Water Quality and Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Member Mr Roger Bills Senior Curator: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) Mr Fazel Sheriff Chief Engineer: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Mr Themba Dladla Provincial Programme Manager: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Dr Kobus Du Plessis Managing Director: Envirokonsult Scientific Services (Pty) Ltd Member Ms Mulalo Sundani Environmental Impact Management: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) Member Dr Elizabeth Day Director: Liz Day Consulting (Pty) Ltd Member Dr Heidi van Deventer Principal Researcher: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Member Mr Lubabalo Luyaba Specialist – Water and Sanitation: South African Local Government Association Member Mr Vhangani Silima Coordinator Environmental Rehabilitation: Rand Water Member Ms Phumelele Sokhulu Environmental Officer: Umgeni Member Mr Robert Siebritz Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Mr Eddy Tshabalala Control Environmental Officer: Sedibeng District Municipality Member Mr Rodney February MEL Coordinator: World Wide Fund for Nature Member Mr Ruwen Pillay Control Environmental Officer: Estuaries Management: DFFE Member Ms Yolokazi Galada Control Environmental Officer: DFFE Member Mr Stephen Midzi Manager: Biodiversity Conservation SANParks Member Dr Thakane Ntholi Manager: Water and Environment: Council for Geoscience Member Specialist Reviewers _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Dr Harrison Pienaar Research Group Leader: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Mr Yazeed Van Wyk Research Manager: Water Research Commission Dr Shafick Adams Executive Manager: Water Research Commission Dr Surina Esterhuyse Senior Lecturer: University of the Free State Prof Thokozani Kanyerere Professor: University of Western Cape Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AMD ARD ARS BAR BCMM BPGs CARA CCT CD: WEM CoJ CMAs DALRRD DCOGTA DEA DEA&DP DEDTEA DEA DFFE DWA DWAF DWS EA ECA EMM EMP EPA eTMM EWRs EIA GA GAC GDEs GIS GRDM GWBF IWQM IWRM MAR MBBR Acid Mine Drainage Acid Rock Drainage Artificial Recharge Strategy Basic Assessment Report Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality Best Practice Guidelines Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act City of Cape Town Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management City of Johannesburg Catchment Management Agencies Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment Department of Water Affairs Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Department of Water and Sanitation Environmental Authorization Environment Conservation Act Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Management Plan/Programme Environmental Protection Agency eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality Ecological Water Requirements Environmental impact Assessment General Authorization Granular Activated Carbon Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems Geographic Information System Groundwater Resource Directed-Measures Groundwater Contribution to Baseflow Integrated Water Quality Management Integrated Water Resource Management Managed Aquifer Recharge Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor MMM MPRDA Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act NEMA National Environmental Management Act NGS NMBM NWA NWRS National Groundwater Strategy Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality National Water Act National Water Resource Strategy NW&SMP PRB RQOs National Water and Sanitation Master Plan Permeable Reaction Barriers Resource Quality Objectives RDM RO SA Resource Directed Measures Reverse Osmosis South Africa Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xii SAHRA SANBI SFR South Africa Heritage Resources Agency South African National Biodiversity Institute Stream flow reduction SDCs SDS TMM UV WHO WMA WML WULA WUL WRC Sources Directed Controls Sources Directed Studies Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality Ultraviolet World Health Organisation Water Management Area Waste Management License Water Use License Application Water Use License Water Research Commission WWTW Wastewater Treatment Works Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xiii GLOSSARY OF TERMS Groundwater - water found in the subsurface in the saturated zone below the water table or contained in an aquifer, whereby an aquifer is a geological formation which has structures or textures that hold water or permit appreciable water movement through them. Baseflow - the delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as groundwater is and is considered the lowest discharge of the stream in the dry season. Diffuse pollution - (or “non-point source pollution”) Pollution that originates from wash- off over a relatively large area. Diffuse pollution sources can be divided into source activities related to either land or water use, including failing septic tanks, agricultural and improper animal-keeping practices, and urban and rural runoff. Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) - is the water regime flow patterns (quality, timing, and duration) needed to maintain a riverine ecosystem in a particular condition. Effluent - the municipal sewage or industrial wastewater (untreated, partially treated, or fully treated) that flows out of a wastewater treatment works, septic system, pipe, etc. Eutrophication - (from the Greek “eutrophos” meaning "well-nourished") The process of over- enrichment of waterbodies with minerals and nutrients, which (at the right temperatures, substrate availability, flow velocity and light penetration) increasingly induce primary production, e.g., algal and macrophyte growth. Eutrophication can be regarded as either a natural aging process in waterbodies or an aging process that can be accelerated by anthropogenic activities. Interflow - the relatively rapid flow of water along the unsaturated/vadose zone flow paths and has the potential to infiltrate the subsurface and move both vertically and laterally before discharging into other water bodies. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) - a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. IWRM considers the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. Monitoring - formal, systematic and regular (periodic or continues) process of collecting groundwater data (i.e., water levels, quality, abstraction), and analysing groundwater trends to observe and determine the level of compliance with statutory requirements and/or pollutant levels. Non-point source pollution - See “Diffuse pollution.” Point source pollution - pollutant loads discharged at a specific location by means of pipes, outfalls, or conveyance channels inter alia delivering wastewater from municipal and industrial Wastewater Treatment Works. Point sources can also include pollutant loads contributed by tributary. Rehabilitation - the process of improvement or restoring impacted areas or resources to resemble the closest achievable approximation of its pre-impact state. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xiv Remediation – restoring impacted areas or resources to return to the natural/original pre- impact state which is often not achievable. Reserve (According to the NWA) - The quantity and quality of water required to satisfy basic human needs and to protect aquatic ecosystems, to secure ecological sustainable management of significant water resources. The Reserve consists of two distinct components: (1) basic human needs and (2) the Ecological Water Requirements, (EWRs). Resources Directed Measures (RDM) - the quantity and quality of the water resource itself, regarding it as an ecosystem rather than a commodity. RDMs comprise Classes, Reserve and RQOs as components. Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) - numerical or descriptive (narrative) statement of the conditions which should be met in the receiving water resource, in terms of resource quality, in order to ensure that the water resource is protected. They might describe, amongst others, the quantity, pattern, and timing of instream flow; water quality; the character and condition of riparian habitat, and the characteristics and condition of the aquatic biota. Runoff - the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. Surface runoff replenishes groundwater and surface water resources as it percolates through soil profiles or moves into streams and rivers. Source - (In water resource management) The source of an impact, usually on a water resource. The relationship between “Source” and “Resource” is similar to the relationships between “Cause” and “Effect” or “Aspect” and “Impact,” as per the ISO 14001 definitions. The “Resource” or the “water resource” is part of the receiving environment Wastewater - any water used from domestic, industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, which may contain physical, chemical, and biological pollutants. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xv CONTENTS DOCUMENT INDEX ........................................................................................................................................... II DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL ...........................................................................................................................III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .....................................................................................................................................III LIST OF ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... XI GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................................................... XIII CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................... XV LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................... XVI LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... XVII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... XVIII 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 DEFINITIONS, CONCEPTS AND REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES ................................................................................. 2 1.3 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES ................................................................................. 3 1.3.1 Conception of groundwater resource rehabilitation guidelines ................................................................... 3 1.4 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES .............................................................................................................. 4 1.5 GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER RESOURCE SYSTEMS AND INTERACTIONS ...................................................... 5 1.5.1 Groundwater and Surface Water Interaction ............................................................................................... 5 1.6 APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES ............................................................................... 7 1.6.1 Nature and extent of the problem ................................................................................................................ 8 1.6.2 Goals/Aims of a Groundwater Rehabilitation Project ................................................................................... 9 1.6.3 Target/Levels for a Groundwater Rehabilitation Project .............................................................................. 9 1.6.4 Timeframe for Groundwater Rehabilitation Activities .................................................................................. 9 1.6.5 Control of Groundwater Contamination (Sources of Control) .................................................................... 10 1.6.6 Selection of Groundwater Rehabilitation Techniques/Methods ................................................................ 10 1.6.7 Removal of Groundwater from the Aquifer ................................................................................................ 12 1.6.8 Reinjection of treated Groundwater into the Aquifers ............................................................................... 13 1.6.9 Monitoring and Evaluation of Groundwater Rehabilitation Project ........................................................... 13 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES ......................................................................................................... 13 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................................. 14 2.1 LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR GROUNDWATER ................................................................................................ 14 2.2 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES AND STRATEGIES .................................................................................... 17 3. GROUNDWATER IMPACTS ..................................................................................................................... 18 4. REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER .................................................... 19 4.1 DOMESTIC ............................................................................................................................................... 20 4.1.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 20 4.1.2 Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 20 4.1.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines ..................................................................................................... 21 4.2 MINING ................................................................................................................................................. 30 4.2.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 30 4.2.2 Types of impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 30 4.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines ...................................................................................................... 31 4.3 INDUSTRIAL ......................................................................................................................................... 35 4.3.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 35 4.3.2 Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 35 4.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines ..................................................................................................... 36 4.4 AGRICULTURAL ......................................................................................................................................... 38 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xvi 4.4.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 38 4.4.2 Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 38 4.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines ...................................................................................................... 38 4.5 FORESTRY ............................................................................................................................................... 40 4.5.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 40 4.5.2 Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 40 4.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines ...................................................................................................... 41 4.6 SOLID WASTE ....................................................................................................................................... 43 4.6.1 Description .................................................................................................................................................. 43 4.6.2 Types of Impacts ......................................................................................................................................... 43 4.6.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines ...................................................................................................... 43 5. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD.............................................................................................. 46 REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 47 APPENDICES................................................................................................................................................... 52 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Illustration of the development of Groundwater Rehabilitation Guidelines per sector. ..... 5 Figure 2: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. ................................................................................................................................................................ 6 Figure 3: Illustrative diagram depicting stream/river-aquifer interactions – (a) connected gaining stream (b) connected losing stream ...................................................................................................... 7 Figure 4: Ex-Situ groundwater rehabilitation technology ................................................................... 11 Figure 5: In-Situ groundwater remediation technology ..................................................................... 12 Figure 6: Different types of phytoremediation techniques ................................................................ 12 Figure 7: Ex-Situ groundwater rehabilitation technology ................................................................... 13 Figure 8: Three main categories of impacts causing degradation of water resources. ..................... 19 Figure 9: DWS Water Use Authorization Processes for Groundwater ............................................... 24 Figure 10: Components (desktop, hydrocensus and borehole siting) of the hydrogeological study. .............................................................................................................................................................. 26 Figure 11: Components (drilling, pump testing and groundwater model) of the hydrogeological study. .................................................................................................................................................... 27 Figure 12: Groundwater Monitoring Components ............................................................................. 28 Figure 13: Groundwater monitoring feedback cycle........................................................................... 29 Figure 14: Sources, pathways and receiving environment for AMD. ................................................. 30 Figure 15: Steps to be followed during the Diagnostic Phase. ........................................................... 31 Figure 16: Steps to be followed during the Planning and Assessment Phase .................................... 32 Figure 17: Aims and objectives of the rehabilitation of AMD water decanting from opencast and underground operations. ..................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 18: Passive Treatment Methods ............................................................................................... 33 Figure 19: Active Treatment Methods ................................................................................................. 34 Figure 20: Monitoring procedure to be followed for monitoring of employed rehabilitation methods. .............................................................................................................................................................. 34 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xvii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Hydrogeological factors affecting groundwater flow ............................................................. 6 Table 2: Approach to be followed for development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Groundwater Resources ................................................................................................................................................ 8 Table 3: Key legislation on groundwater resource rehabilitation in South Africa ............................. 14 Table 4: Polies and strategies informing groundwater rehabilitation. .............................................. 17 Table 5: The main categories of impacts that affect groundwater resources for domestic use. ...... 20 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xviii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In South Africa, groundwater is recognized as one of the strategic water sources with more than 50% of communities in the country dependant on groundwater for domestic needs, especially those living in arid and semi-arid areas. It is estimated that groundwater constitutes only 13% of South Africa's total water supply, which might seem modest compared to the contribution of surface water resources. However, this seemingly small percentage is crucial, as it provides water to 56% of the population. This includes over 34 million people across 23,746 settlements, accounting for 78.5% of all settlements in the country, who rely on groundwater either as their sole water source or in combination with surface water (DWS, 2016). However, groundwater resources are negatively affected by over-abstraction, water quality deterioration impacts associated with climate change, urbanisation, and poor management. To address the impacts on groundwater resources, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) in the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) initiated a project in 2020 to develop Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) for Water Resources. The project responds to one objectives of the Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM) to conduct sources-directed studies to ensure water resource protection. There are various activities relating to groundwater resources rehabilitation in the country, however, there is no coordinated approach for these practices to guide rehabilitation. It is for this reason that the DWS is developing RMGs for control and management of groundwater resources for domestic, mining, industrial, agricultural, forestry sectors and solid waste management following a phased approach, namely; diagnostic, planning and assessment, setting of the rehabilitation objectives, execution, monitoring, evaluation, and reporting phases. The following are key aspects covered in the guidelines: for the control and management of the groundwater resources as per impacting activities discussed under domestic, mining, industrial, forestry and solid waste sectors • Description of sectors contributing to pollution (i.e., domestic, mining, industrial, solid waste, agricultural and forestry sectors); • Description of the types of impacts emanating from the various sectors; • Legal considerations - applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities; and • Step-by-step guidelines on measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation - planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have therefore been developed to control and manage the water resources as per impacting activities summarised below. The main activities that affect groundwater include over-abstraction, mining, industrial activities, landfill sites, agriculture, and forestry. Over-abstraction of groundwater resources is caused by mismanagement which influences frequent borehole failure. Groundwater over-abstraction results not only in aquifer depletion and water-quality degradation but also affects the ecological integrity of groundwater-dependent ecosystems causing significant losses of habitat and biodiversity especially when there is a strong connection between surface and groundwater resources. Groundwater dependent ecosystems include streams and wetlands that depend on groundwater as a source. The current RMGs have been developed for the Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 xix control and management of groundwater over-abstraction activities and improvement of quality for domestic uses. Mining activities impact on water quality. Acid mine drainage (AMD) and/or acid rock drainage (ARD) is one of the most serious and potentially enduring environmental problems. Mining related activities pose major water quality issues as they adversely impact the environment and water resources. The AMD and/or ARD lowers/reduces water pH, increasing the solubility of metals, which facilitates its bioavailability. RMGs have been developed for the management of AMD water decanting from gold and coal (including metals like silver, copper, and zinc) opencast and underground operations. Industrial activities can cause industrial effluent. The effluent can emanate from various industries and percolates through the soil into the groundwater. The composition of the industrial effluent falls into one or more of the following categories: dissolved organics, suspended solids, priority pollutants (e.g., phenols), heavy metals, colour, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), microbial contamination, oil and grease, refractory compounds, and volatiles. These contaminants, if untreated, affect human, animal, and aquatic lives. The developed RMGs presented in this report, are meant to improve the management of industrial effluent contaminating into groundwater. Landfill sites can cause leachate, which is a strong reducing liquid produced from landfills. This leachate can percolate through the soil into groundwater if there is no liner present or if the functioning of the liner system is compromised. Leachate typically contains lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni), and during its percolation through the soil it reacts with iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) to reduce them into more soluble species, thus increasing their concentration in groundwater. The developed RMGs presented in this report, are meant to improve the management of leachate ingressing into groundwater from landfill sites. Agricultural activities can have several negative groundwater impacts. Inputs such as fertilisers negatively affect groundwater quality, especially where the water table is high (i.e., shallow groundwater levels). In cases where the water table is low, the quality of interflow is affected. Anthropogenic activities, such as irrigation, may influence the chemistry of groundwater and determine the level of contaminants in groundwater. Common contaminants associated with agricultural activities include elevated concentrations of Nitrate (NO 3 -). Irrigation return flows also contribute to the buildup of salts causing salinisation. The developed RMGs in this report, are meant to improve the management of elevated concentrations of nitrate (NO 3 -) in groundwater. Forestry-related activities use interflow and baseflow which pose an impact on lowering both surface and groundwater levels due to the interaction that occurs when groundwater contributes to surface water or when the river recharges groundwater. Afforestation and alien vegetation have impacts on interflow and baseflow which leads to stream flow reduction (SFR). The developed RMGs in this report, are meant to improve the management of the over-abstraction of groundwater caused by SFR activities. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND In South Africa, groundwater is recognized as one of the strategic water sources. It is estimated that more than 50% of communities in the country depend on groundwater for domestic needs, especially those living in arid and semi-arid areas (DWS, 2016). Groundwater resource availability for sufficient, potable water is critical for ensuring water supply and ecosystems services, agricultural production, industrial activities, and food security in South Africa (Masindi and Abiye, 2018). Although groundwater has been habitually perceived as a safe and dependable source of water, this is often not the case since it is prone to pollution from both anthropogenic and natural processes (Masindi and Foteinis, 2021). Water quality challenges in terms of elevated levels of calcium, magnesium, and nitrate in boreholes, attributed to the agricultural practices and washing of clothes in the vicinity of the boreholes (Odiyo and Makungo, 2012) have been reported in the country. Acid generation and metals dissolution are the primary problems associated with pollution from mining activities. Mine water impacts negatively on the water environment by increasing the levels of suspended solids, leading to mobilisation of elements such as iron, aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, manganese and zinc and including decreasing pH of the receiving water (Wamsley and Mazury, 1999). In 2020, the Directorate Sources Directed Studies (SDS) within the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) initiated a project for the development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Water Resources (i.e., groundwater resources). The project responds to one of the objectives of the Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management (CD: WEM) to conduct sources-directed studies to ensure water resource protection. In the Situation Assessment Phase of the project, it was established that studies have been conducted in the country to explore groundwater resource rehabilitation. Below is a list of some of the key findings from the records review tasks that were conducted: • There are various activities relating to groundwater resources remediation (preventing production borehole clogging by in-situ iron removal in aquifer systems undertaken by WRC) in the country, however, there seems to be a lack of a coordinated approach for such practices to report and evaluate their effectiveness; • Data emanating from research studies and initiatives undertaken in the country on groundwater resources rehabilitation is available, although limited; • Groundwater remediation that exists in the country is dominated by artificial recharge which requires large volumes of water which the country does not always have. Moreover, it is impossible to apply artificial recharge technology everywhere in the country as it is dependent on the specific types of aquifers i.e., fractured aquifers, alluvial aquifers among others. which do not occur necessarily everywhere. • Water quality treatment can be used to rehabilitate contaminated groundwater resources including Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) treatment, that can be used to treat AMD contaminated groundwater, is another option that seems to be very expensive especially when the reverse osmosis technique is applied. This could be avoided by undertaking remediation activities concurrently with mining operations instead of waiting until a mining operation ceases; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 2 • Various techniques and technologies are available for use in groundwater resource rehabilitation programmes; however, the choice of their application depends on their respective advantages and limitations, and the type of contamination prevalent. The Situation Assessment Phase concluded that although studies on groundwater resource rehabilitation are prevalent in the country, practical guide on the application of the outcomes emanating from such studies has been limited, possibly due to the unavailability of comprehensive water resource rehabilitation guidelines. There is a need for a coordinated approach to sustain groundwater remediation practices through development of such guidelines. 1.2 DEFINITIONS, CONCEPTS AND REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES According to the National Water Act (NWA) (Act 36. of 1998), groundwater is defined as a water found in the subsurface in the saturated zone below the water table or contained in an aquifer, whereby an aquifer is a geological formation which has structures or textures that hold water or permit appreciable water movement through them. The word rehabilitation means the process of improvement or restoring impacted areas or resources to resemble the closest achievable approximation of its pre-impact state. Some authors argue that the precise meaning of the word “rehabilitation” can mean very different things to different people, contending many forms and conceptions depending on the context and the field in which the term is used such as the field of health services, and criminal justice, just to name the few examples (Bonnechère and Van Sint Jan, 2019; Antonio and Price, 2021). For the purpose of this report, groundwater resource rehabilitation can be understood as an act of restoring the functionality of an aquifer and its characteristics to continue deriving benefits associated with that system. A similar term remediation is also frequently used to describe the same action of restoring the functionality of a system or restoring impacted areas to return to the natural/original pre-impact state which is often not achievable. According to DWAF (2000), remediation involves restoration of areas that historically have had unacceptable impacts and underground water resources or areas where impacts on such resources have become unacceptable. Although the terms rehabilitation and remediation may to describe similar actions, depending on the choice of a user, these terms are often used interchangeably in practice. Therefore, in this report, the term rehabilitation has been adopted because remediation or restoration implies a return to a natural pre-impact state, which is often not achievable. Sustainable management of groundwater should aim to prevent groundwater from becoming severely depleted or highly polluted, as prevention is always less expensive than trying to remediate problems once they have occurred. However, sometimes groundwater degradation may have to be mitigated with technical measures, because the aquifer will not recover on its own, or because other pressures (i.e., urbanisation, population growth, industrial development, and climate change) are of a nature that groundwater will continue to be exploited from an increasingly degraded system. A key aspect of any rehabilitation programme is a clear agreement on the targeted end point and on how it will be monitored and measured. Rehabilitation measures can be applied in situ (introducing oxygen, nanoparticles, or bacteria to help speed up natural biogeochemical processes) or ex-situ (commonly pumping contaminated groundwater to the surface and treating it or erecting barriers to contain contaminated groundwater) (Smith et al., 2016). Bioremediation, chemical, and physical methods are Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 3 examples of approaches for groundwater rehabilitation technologies (Azubuike et al., 2016; Pi et al., 2020; Zhang, et al., 2020). The choice of groundwater rehabilitation method depends on a good understanding of the hydrogeological regime. 1.3 PURPOSE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES The primary objective of this Rehabilitation Management Guidelines is to report the development of: • Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater Resources to ensure a coordinated approach for the implementation of site-specific rehabilitation techniques and practices applicable to South African geological conditions. 1.3.1 Conception of groundwater resource rehabilitation guidelines The main purpose of groundwater rehabilitation is to remove waste material and/or reduce the concentration of contaminants in groundwater to acceptable levels. Groundwater rehabilitation ensures that the beneficial use of groundwater is restored within a reasonable timeframe, and it is achieved most often by combining rehabilitation techniques. The application of multiple types of rehabilitation technologies is often necessitated by a very large extent of pollution, or by various pollutants. Although drinking water is most often the beneficial use of groundwater, non-potable use such as ecological ecosystem sustainability is also possible and may trigger groundwater rehabilitation. It is estimated that approximate 13% of groundwater in South Africa's constitutes to total water supply, which is a key resource for agriculture and for many industries (DWS, 2016). Groundwater use for various purposes such as domestic, agriculture, industrial, recreation, and ecosystem sustainability may not only compete in terms of groundwater quantity but quality as well. In South Africa, water quality guidelines are available, and these guidelines were developed taking into consideration requirements for various water uses. Therefore, limits for water quality requirements differ from one water use to another. In terms of groundwater rehabilitation, one would accept that water quality limits as set in the water quality guidelines for a specific water use could be considered rehabilitation targets that would be used as end-point/indicator for a rehabilitation project. The resource quality objectives (RQOs) determined in a catchment would also have objectives for groundwater. Groundwater rehabilitation can be undertaken with a view of environmental protection, and in such cases, environmental acceptable levels can be considered as rehabilitation targets. In general terms, the success of a groundwater rehabilitation project may be evaluated for its efficiency based on its ability to lower the concentration of a contaminant to the level of background/ambient concentration. In this context, acceptable background or ambient conditions of groundwater resources must be established to facilitate differentiation between elevated concentration levels emanating from anthropogenic activities and those emanating from natural processes, such as water-rock interaction. It is important to consider that groundwater resource rehabilitation forms part of water resources protection within the broader integrated water resources management practice. Groundwater Resource Directed-Measures (GRDM) are used as one of the strategies for groundwater resources protection to ensure sustained suitability for beneficial purposes (NGS, 2016). The National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP) (2018) recommends that conditions or protection levels set as GRDM must be monitored for compliance. Within the context of groundwater resources protection, Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 4 groundwater resource rehabilitation can therefore be initiated as a result of non-compliance with GRDM set as environmentally acceptable protection levels. Groundwater rehabilitation guidelines are used as a reference guide based on developing materials to inform water users and regulators about groundwater resource rehabilitation. In doing so, critical aspects such as the nature and extent of the problem; rehabilitation goals; targets/levels; timeframe; methods/techniques; monitoring; evaluation; and contaminant control, are discussed in detail in Section 1.7. 1.4 INTENDED USERS OF THE GUIDELINES The RMGs for Groundwater Resources is a set of tools developed to ensure that clear and practical steps are provided on a wide range of rehabilitation measures/interventions that take cognisance of legal, ecological, social, and economic, issues and aspects. The guidelines are intended for all Government Departments (National, Provincial and Local), Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs), sectoral institutions (i.e., higher education institutions), civil society members, non-governmental entities, private sector (agriculture, industries, mining) and all interested and affected parties involved in the water sector. The guidelines are developed at a national scale for implementation at a catchment level. This document guides regulators, practitioners, and stakeholders on groundwater resource rehabilitation approaches with a focus on achieving positive outcomes in terms of groundwater resource sustainability rather than focusing on a particular administration process. Although groundwater rehabilitation would be largely influenced by hydrogeologic factors such as groundwater and soil contaminant mass, exposure pathways, groundwater velocity properties, permeability, and other factors, however the guidelines are developed using a combination of sectors and their respective specific impact types, and the approach illustrated in Figure 1 below is adopted. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 5 Figure 1: Illustration of the development of Groundwater Rehabilitation Guidelines per sector. 1.5 GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER RESOURCE SYSTEMS AND INTERACTIONS 1.5.1 Groundwater and Surface Water Interaction Groundwater is an important contributor to baseflow. Baseflow is defined as the portion that contributes to the surface water resources by delayed sources and groundwater (Hall 1968), and it is considered the lowest discharge of the stream in the dry season. To this end, rehabilitation guidelines for surface water resources (rivers, wetlands, estuaries, lakes and dams) have been developed across the board for characteristics of watercourses, namely; hydrology (surface flow, surface runoff and interflow), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, and biota (Figure 2). Groundwater as defined by NWA is a water resource (i.e., aquifer) and not a characteristic of watercourses. However, groundwater flow is that component of groundwater that is viewed by the DWS as a characteristic of watercourses and as such will be covered in the current guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 6 Figure 2: Diagram depicting the link between water resources and characteristics of watercourses. According to Tóth (1970) and Sophocleous (2002), groundwater flows to surface water resources are influenced by three main factors described in Table 1; namely, topographical, geological, and climatic effects. These factors affect how groundwater flows towards surface water resources. Groundwater depth remains connected to topography, i.e., water table (Hubbert 1940). Table 1: Hydrogeological factors affecting groundwater flow Source: adapted from Hubbert, 1940 Hydrogeological Factors Description Topographical effects • Topography affects groundwater contribution to baseflow when the elevation of the water table is higher than the river water for groundwater to contribute to surface water. Geological effects • Unconfined aquifers contribute water to surface water when high porosities exist in the subsurface. • Confined aquifers require geological structures (i.e., fractures and faults) to contribute water to surface water. • Groundwater discharges into surface water bodies when the hydraulic head in the groundwater is higher than in the surface water, and the streambed is sufficiently permeable to allow this exchange of water. The permeability of the streambed controls the rate and volume of groundwater inflow into the river or stream. Climatic effects • Groundwater contribution to surface water is affected by climatic changes. • High precipitation levels result in increased recharge, contributing to baseflow and sustaining river flows during dry seasons. • Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can significantly impact regional climatic and hydrological systems, altering groundwater recharge rates and the interaction between groundwater and surface water. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 7 Groundwater and surface water interaction occurs through two primary processes: groundwater discharges to surface water and surface water recharge to groundwater The exchange of water between aquifers and surface water bodies is largely governed by several factors: • Hydraulic gradient between the surface water level and the groundwater level; • Hydraulic conductivity and storage properties of the aquifer; and • The geological characteristics of the materials separating the aquifer from the surface water resource. • Hydraulic pressure/hydrostatic pressure that builds in the subsurface pushes water from groundwater systems to form surface water systems such as springs forming rivers. Groundwater can discharge due to hydraulic gradient and/or hydraulic pressure into a stream/ or a river in some areas, contributing to baseflow, while in other areas, surface water can infiltrate and recharge the underlying groundwater system. Figure 3 provides a schematic representation of the dynamic interaction between groundwater and streams/rivers. Figure 3: Illustrative diagram depicting stream/river-aquifer interactions – (a) connected gaining stream (b) connected losing stream Source: Winter et al., 1998 1.6 APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES The Groundwater Rehabilitation Guidelines are developed with the aim to provide guidance to the water users on the step-by-step rehabilitation measures/interventions to be followed for executing rehabilitation with specific attention to planning, design, implementation, and monitoring for the identified impacts. Table 2 below presents the approach followed for the development of the groundwater rehabilitation guidelines. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 8 Table 2: Approach to be followed for development of Rehabilitation Guidelines for Groundwater Resources Phase Description PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase • Identify the cause/source of impact; and determine the level of modification and rehabilitation measures that will be recommended to reinstate affected areas. • Determine the conditions and the type, size, extent of impacts, and vegetation cover/ species on characteristics of watercourses. PHASE 2: Planning & Assessment Phase • Conduct planning and assessment to ensure the desired rehabilitation outcomes are achieved. • Assess and collate available information from maps & datasets on the affected watercourses. • Review and assess legal considerations. PHASE 3: Define the Rehabilitation Objectives • Identify and define the objectives of rehabilitation to ensure the impacts on the characteristics of watercourses are addressed or to reinstate the conditions of the drivers. PHASE 4: Execution • Recommend techniques and methods to address the impacts identified. taking into consideration the protection of the water resources ecosystem. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation (M & E) and Reporting • Monitor results of the techniques and methods employed for rehabilitation to determine whether or not objectives are being achieved and whether or not there are any additional interventions required. • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes. • Determine maintenance objectives. • Compilation of Rehabilitation Plans and Reporting. The below key factors will be considered and followed for the development of the guidelines. 1.6.1 Nature and extent of the problem The initial stage of a groundwater rehabilitation project involves the collection of information that would give a general overview of the status in terms of non-compliance with set environmental conditions or in terms of groundwater resource pollution. A survey is done using a multi-faceted approach (Pearce et al., 1995) to determine the nature and extent of groundwater quality deterioration in a catchment. The survey may be conducted as a feasibility study for remedial action. Feasibility studies can be instituted as an evaluation exercise to identify the appropriate response action to address groundwater contamination, and costs associated with the commissioning of a rehabilitation project (US-DOE, 1998; Lalumbe et al., 2022). As a case example, it has been reported that in some parts of the Lower Orange Water Management Area, currently known as the Orange Water Management Area (WMA), groundwater quality has been deteriorating at an alarming rate in boreholes due to salinity changes from 1996 to 2012 that led to increased electrical conductivity from 220 mS/m to approximately 435 mS/m (Nkosi et al., 2021). Such information forms the basis for the initiation of a groundwater rehabilitation project. Information generated on general sources of groundwater contamination and types of groundwater contaminants should be summarized. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (1999) noted that any programme intended to assess and Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 9 remediate contaminated groundwater must begin with the development of a structured conceptual model that embodies geology, and hydrogeology, including affected communities. Once findings from the assessment of the nature and extent of the problem have been presented, a general approach for the management and selection of remedial actions, application of modeling, and technologies for groundwater rehabilitation would be recommended (IAEA, 1999). 1.6.2 Goals/Aims of a Groundwater Rehabilitation Project Groundwater resource rehabilitation projects should be based on clear goals or objectives linked to the protection of human health and the environment. While protection for human health may be linked to basic human needs, the environmental aspects may be linked to the ecological settings, which are important for groundwater rehabilitation, especially where contaminated groundwater replenishes adjacent aquifers and discharges into surface water bodies. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2004) states that in determining appropriate clean-up objectives for groundwater remedies, stakeholders should consider the use, value, and vulnerability of the groundwater resource, and all potential pathways that could result in human or ecological exposure to contaminants in or from groundwater. Similarly, the current guideline for groundwater rehabilitation recommends that rehabilitation actions should be able to return the final remedies to their maximum beneficial use or their predefined ambient conditions. 1.6.3 Target/Levels for a Groundwater Rehabilitation Project Groundwater rehabilitation levels provide clear numerical targets that regulators and stakeholders can use to measure the success of groundwater rehabilitation actions. These numerical limits or concentration levels can be used as rehabilitation targets that would act as end points/indicators to cease a rehabilitation project. Groundwater resource-directed measures set objectives for the required level of protection of each resource, and these resource-based quality objectives ensure that each aspect of the Reserve 1 is not damaged beyond repair (Talabi and Kayode, 2019). This guideline recommends that target levels for groundwater rehabilitation should be based on the set environmental conditions such as groundwater RQOs to ensure that protection for both human health and the ecological ecosystem for current and future generations is realized. In the absence of predefined environmental conditions, concentration limits as set in the water quality guidelines should be considered. 1.6.4 Timeframe for Groundwater Rehabilitation Activities The rehabilitation timeframe is an estimate of when groundwater quality will achieve a certain level at a specified location and/or the schedule developed to take action or construct a remedy designed to achieve a particular goal (EPA, 2004). Chapelle et al., (2003) note that the time required for these processes to lower contaminant concentrations to levels protective of human health and the environment varies widely between different hydrologic systems, different chemical contaminants, and varying amounts of contaminants. The establishment of reasonable timeframes must be based on realistically set rehabilitation goals. 1 According to the NWA, the Reserve is the quantity and quality of water required to satisfy basic human needs and to protect aquatic ecosystems, in order to secure ecological sustainable management of significant water resources. The Reserve, therefore, consists of two distinct components: (1) basic human needs and (2) the Ecological Water Requirements, (EWRs). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 10 This guideline recommends that groundwater rehabilitation timeframes should be reasonable, be aligned to specific goals of rehabilitation, and must consider the following: • Potential threat to human exposure and aquatic ecosystems; • The potential for achieving rehabilitation goals; • Type and extent of contamination or non-compliance with environmental background conditions; • Hydrogeologic characteristics that include estimating the impact of site hydrogeology on groundwater reliability; • Choice of rehabilitation technology or related remediation interventions, and its ability to remove contaminant mass under controlled conditions; • Design and capabilities of rehabilitation project(s) to eliminate groundwater pollution to acceptable levels; • Design and capabilities of rehabilitation project(s) that promotes groundwater source and aquifer protection zoning where deemed necessary; • Public health and safety concerns associated with implementing the technology or related remediation interventions in or near a study area; • Public perception and community preferences; and • Resources and the relative cost of implementation. Consideration of these factors to determine acceptable rehabilitation timeframes allows for the efficient running of rehabilitation activities to ensure that it achieves the desired goals. 1.6.5 Control of Groundwater Contamination (Sources of Control) Control of groundwater pollution is more appropriate than rehabilitation because once groundwater becomes contaminated, it is difficult and expensive to clean up (Talabi and Kayode, 2019). However, it is understood that in some cases, prevention measures for groundwater pollution may not readily be in place, which could result in groundwater quality deterioration and, subsequently, the requirement for remedial actions. Therefore, the guideline recommends that before the initiation of the groundwater rehabilitation project, control of the source(s) of release must be ensured to reduce or eliminate, to the extent practicable, further releases of hazardous waste or hazardous constituents that may pose a threat to human health and the environment must be checked, reported and stopped. 1.6.6 Selection of Groundwater Rehabilitation Techniques/Methods With technology to rehabilitate contaminated sites, many remedial techniques have been developed (Devika and Rastogi, 2015). Groundwater rehabilitation can take place through the extraction of groundwater from the aquifer, treat it above the ground, and return the treated water into the aquifer. Extraction is done by pumping groundwater from a borehole or a trench and treating it with a variety of techniques characterised as ex-situ techniques. The following are some of the ex-situ rehabilitation techniques available in practice: • Carbon Adsorption involves passing the contaminated pumped-up groundwater through an activated carbon-column in which contaminates get adsorbed. • Oxygen Sparging is a technique that introduces oxidizing or reducing agents such as O 3 , H 2 O 2 , and Hypochlorite) to chemically convert the toxic contaminates into less toxic compounds. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 11 • Steam Stripping involves treatment by introducing steam which extracts contaminants from pumped-out groundwater. The extracted steam along with contaminates can be recovered from the condensate or treated further by incineration. • Ex-situ Bioremediation is a technique that involves the treatment of pumped-up groundwater by air (biodegradation) with careful control of moisture, heat nutrients, oxygen, and pH. All ex-situ techniques are mainly characterised by the “pump and treat” approach as depicted in Figure 4. Figure 4: Ex-Situ groundwater rehabilitation technology Source: adapted from Dwivedi, 2014 Groundwater rehabilitation can also take place at the site of rehabilitation without the removal of the contaminated groundwater. The following are some of the in-situ rehabilitation techniques available in practice: • In-situ Bioremediation allows for on-site injection of oxygen to enhance biodegradation. This treatment also combines injection of degrading microorganisms and nutrients into the aquifer to stimulate biodegradation. • Thermal treatment involves an increase in the temperature of the contaminated site to increase the mobility of pollutants, which facilitates the removal of pollutants which can also results in-situ destruction of contaminates. • Air Sparging enables the injection of contaminant-free air into the subsurface saturated zone, thus enabling a phase transfer of hydrocarbons from a dissolved state to a vapor phase. • The phytoremediation technique involves the use of macroscopic plants to destroy, remove immobilize, and treat contaminants. This process does not use microorganisms but plants. (Reference) The in-situ technology is shown in Figure 5, while types of phytoremediation techniques are elaborated in Figure 6. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 12 Figure 5: In-Situ groundwater remediation technology Source: adapted from Dwivedi, 2014 Figure 6: Different types of phytoremediation techniques Source: Available online at: https://www.eni.com/assets/documents/eng/enirewind/remediation/vademecum-eng.pdf The selection of remedial techniques depends upon several factors such as contaminant profile, aquifer profile, and feasibility profile (Dwivedi, 2014). The contaminant profile includes types of compounds (Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid; Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid; Ammonia, Virus; Bacteria), quantity and solubility in water, toxicity, and volatility (e.g., Metals), and biodegradability. The aquifer profile includes soil type (permeability, homogeneity, confined or open), groundwater flow direction, water table location, and recharge locations (seasonal rainfall). The feasibility profile relates to the cost of technology to use, and the time of project completion. 1.6.7 Removal of Groundwater from the Aquifer Removal of contaminated groundwater is mostly done by applying “pump-and-treat” technology as a rehabilitation technique. One or more extraction wells are used to remove contaminated water from the subsurface. Pumping removes, or “flushes,” additional contamination by inducing desorption from Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 13 the porous media grains and dissolution of a contaminant (Figure 7). The contaminated groundwater is then pumped from the subsurface and directed to some type of treatment operation, which may consist of air stripping, carbon adsorption, or perhaps an above-ground biological treatment system (Brusseau, 2019). Figure 7: Ex-Situ groundwater rehabilitation technology Source: adapted from Brusseau, 2019 1.6.8 Reinjection of treated Groundwater into the Aquifers Once contaminated groundwater has been removed from the aquifer it can be subjected to treatment to ensure that contaminants are removed. Once contaminants have been removed or lowered down to background levels, treated groundwater can then be reinjected back into the resource when it is considered safe to do so. 1.6.9 Monitoring and Evaluation of Groundwater Rehabilitation Project EPA (2004) noted that both natural and human factors such as seasonal precipitation or nearby groundwater usage can influence the ability of a rehabilitation project to control migration of contaminated groundwater. Therefore, performance of a groundwater rehabilitation activity must be monitored. Performance monitoring can assess changes in groundwater so that project managers can modify rehabilitation actions to ensure maximum efficiency, protectiveness, and compliance. Performance monitoring can also demonstrate whether the rehabilitation technique applied is performing as expected. Groundwater rehabilitation can be considered complete when final rehabilitation objectives have been met, even though long-term controls may be required. This stage of the rehabilitation project allows for the evaluation of whether or not the project is successful in the elimination of a contaminant plume per unit boundary point of compliance, and whether or not it has controlled further releases of contaminants that might re-contaminate groundwater. 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES The guidelines are divided into five main sections as follows: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 14 • The opening sections contain the document signatories, document index and status, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of figures, tables, acronyms, and executive summary. • Section 1 provides the background for the development of the guidelines, purpose, approach, intended users, and structure of the guidelines. • Section 2 provides the overarching legal framework for groundwater rehabilitation. • Section 3 provides the overarching degradation impacts associated with groundwater resources. • Section 4 provides the step-by-step Technical Rehabilitation Guidelines for groundwater resources. • Section 5 provides recommendations and a way forward. • The last section presents the bibliography and list of appendices. 2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR GROUNDWATER Groundwater resource rehabilitation activities are undertaken within the context of a legal framework to support the legitimacy of such activities. Table 3 outlines some of the key legislative frameworks that support groundwater resources rehabilitation. Table 3: Key legislation on groundwater resource rehabilitation in South Africa Legal Framework Context The Constitution of the RSA, 1996 - Bill of Rights. • Section 152 (1) stipulates that the objective of local government amongst others, is to ensure the provision of services (water and sanitation) to communities in a sustainable manner. White Paper on the National water policy of 1997 (NWP, 1997) • Principle 16 of the NWP (1997) on water resources management approaches proposed that water quality management options shall include the use of economic incentives and penalties to reduce pollution; and the possibility of irretrievable environmental degradation because of pollution shall be prevented. • Incentives and penalties could also be used to fund rehabilitation projects for the environment or water resources that have degraded beyond natural state of recovery. The NWP (1997) does not separate water resources in terms of their types, and therefore it is in this principle where groundwater resources rehabilitation is supported. National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) (NWA, 1998) • Chapter 3, Part 4, Section 19 of the NWA (1998) deals with prevention and remedying effects of pollution. Section 19(2)(e)(f) stipulates measures that must be taken to prevent any pollution of water resources from occurring, continuing, or recurring. Such measures include remedying the effects of pollution and remedying the effects of any disturbance to the banks of a watercourses. • In the case of emergency situations, where harmful substances are accidentally or negligently discharged into water resources, the NWA (Chapter 3, Part 5, Section 20) provides for those who have caused the pollution and are responsible for remedying its effects. • With the promulgation of the NWA, Act 36 of 1998, groundwater lost its previous status of private water and became public water and a ‘significant resource’. In terms of the IWRM vision of the Act, all the rules by which water resources were to be conserved, protected, managed and controlled in an Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 15 Legal Framework Context integrated manner now also applied to groundwater. It is in this context that the NWA supports implementation of measures for groundwater resources rehabilitation. • Section 21 (c) and (i), (j), and (g) are some typical water uses triggered by rehabilitation interventions or activities. It must however be noted that this will depend on the situation at hand and the approach might differ on a case- by-case basis. Water Services Act 108 of 1997, and Local Government Municipal System Act 32 of 2000 • The Water Services Act (Section 21) states that every Water Service Authority must make Bylaws which contain conditions for the provision of water services. It is therefore imperative that there is an effective development of the Water Services By-laws in terms of Section 139 (a) of the Local Government Municipal System Act 32 of 2000. • Rules contained in these Bylaws concerning alternative water sources prescribe that an owner must provide and maintain effective measures to prevent entry of any substance or matter, which may be a danger to health or may adversely affect the quality of water or affect its fitness for use, in (a) the water supply system or plant and, (b) any part of the water installation on his or her premises. These Rules also prescribe that no person may sink a borehole on premises situated on a dolomite area and where settlements have already been established, the Council may make an assessment and prescribe appropriate action, including stoppage. Regulations regarding the procedural requirements for Water Use Licence Applications and Appeals - Government Notice (GN) R267 in Government Gazette 40713 dated 24 March 2017. • The purpose of these Regulations is to prescribe the procedure and requirements for Water Use License Applications as contemplated in sections 41 of the Act; as well as an appeal in terms of section 41(6) of the Act. National Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of 1998) (NEMA, 1998) • Section 28(3)(f) of the NEMA requires that every person who causes, has caused, or may cause significant pollution or degradation of the environment must take reasonable measures such as remedying the effects of the pollution or degradation. • Considering that water resources with groundwater included form part of the environment, it is under this section of the NEMA where groundwater resources rehabilitation is supported. National Environmental Management: Waste Act (Act 59 of 2008) • Part 8 of the of the Waste Act provide a detailed approach for the management of contaminated land in the country. • Provide a clear set of approaches in identification of investigation areas. • It outlines the processes that must be followed in management of contaminated land. • It also sets out information required in tools for management of contaminated land. Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act (Act 28 of 2002) (MRPDA, 2002) • The Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act of 2002 lays out new obligations for mining and other industries in terms of the monitoring and remediation of pollution of water resources. Therefore, the Act supports remediation of polluted groundwater resources, especially pollution resulting from industrial and mining operations. By-laws The by-laws below are summarised from a WRC study undertaken in 2019 and various other reports. City of Johannesburg (CoJ) Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 16 Legal Framework Context CoJ’s water services by-laws do not provide for groundwater protection nor require the registration of boreholes (CoJ, 2008). CoJ developed Dolomite risk by- laws which require the establishment of a Dolomite Risk Management Section within the CoJ, which will be responsible for mitigation of land subsidence issues. The by-law controls the CoJ’s emergency response to sinkhole formation, and the necessity for dolomite risk assessments at site developments on dolomite land. Extensive measures requiring CoJ to monitor dolomite groundwater levels, and enabling control of dolomite abstraction, are provided with the purpose of maintaining safety (CoJ, 2015). Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality (EMM) Various groundwater management measures are included in the by-laws, including that (EMM, 2001): • the owner of a borehole (or well, or wellpoint) existing prior to the promulgation of the by-laws, has 90 days to notify EMM of its existence, and provide required details; • prior approval is required to drill, deepen or replace a borehole; and • allowance is made for EMM to: o enter property to monitor private boreholes; and o determine the maximum abstraction allowable from a borehole. However, the prevention of pollution policy references only streams, reservoirs, and aqueducts (EMM, 2001). Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (TMM) Various groundwater management measures are included in the by-laws (TMM, 2003), including that: • TMM can, by public notice, request notification for all existing and planned boreholes; • TMM may require owners/occupiers of premises who intend to sink a borehole to conduct an EIA; • TMM may require owners/occupiers of premises with boreholes to obtain approval from the municipality for use of borehole for potable supply; • TMM may impose conditions for potable use of borehole water; and • Owner/occupier of premises with boreholes must provide and maintain a meter measuring the total quantity of water abstracted and discharged as industrial effluent into the sewers. eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality (eTMM) By-laws state that the eTMM can, by public notice, request notification for all existing and planned boreholes and install a meter to monitor abstracted groundwater discharge into sewerage system (eTMM, 2017b). City of Cape Town (CCT) Various groundwater management and protection measures are included in the by-laws, including that (CCT, 2010) • a borehole (or well, or wellpoint) owner can be called upon to provide CCT with any information regarding the borehole as may be required; • the borehole may not cause an adjacent well, borehole or underground source of water to become polluted or contaminated; • prior approval to sink a borehole is required; and • CCT may request a study be undertaken, to assess any impact of proposed boreholes prior to establishment. Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (NMBM) Assuming that the existing groundwater supply from Uitenhage Spring is classified as “municipal water services infrastructure”, it is extensively protected in the NMBM by-laws, by measures such as controlled access, controlled activities in its vicinity, prevention of illegal abstraction, and prevention of pollution (NMBM, 2010). Furthermore the by-laws specify that (NMBM, 2010): Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 17 Legal Framework Context • the municipality should be notified of existing and intended boreholes; • the municipality may require owners / occupiers of premises with boreholes to obtain approval from the municipality for use; and • the municipality may impose conditions for use and may impose a fixed charge for the use. Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality (MMM) Various groundwater management measures are included in the by-laws, including that (MMM, 2013): • the municipality can, by public notice, request notification for all existing and planned boreholes; • the municipality may require owners / occupiers of premises with boreholes to obtain approval from the MM for use; and • the municipality may impose conditions for use and may impose a fixed charge for the use. Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality (BCMM) Various groundwater management and protection measures are included in the by-laws, including that (BCMM, 2011): • greywater, wastewater, treated effluent, cannot be discharged into groundwater, except in accordance with NWA; • the municipality can request notification for all existing and planned boreholes; and • French drains may not contaminate boreholes. 2.2 ALIGNMENT WITH POLICIES AND STRATEGIES A guideline on rehabilitation management for groundwater resources acts as a reference material or as a standard guide controlling water resources rehabilitation activities. However, such a guide must be relevant and be aligned with existing policies and strategies. Therefore, this section provides an overview of existing policies and strategies, and it highlights the context in which these policies and strategies influence or will influence groundwater resources rehabilitation practice. Furthermore, the overview will assist in developing groundwater resources rehabilitation guidelines that are relevant and appropriate for policy implementation using existing strategies. A summary of policies and strategies that inform groundwater rehabilitation is outlined in Table 4 below. Table 4: Polies and strategies informing groundwater rehabilitation. Legal Framework Context Policy and Strategy for Groundwater Quality Management in South Africa (2000) Policy and Strategy for Groundwater Quality Management (2000) emphasises groundwater remediation which is not sufficiently covered in the NWA. It draws on the experience of countries that already have guidelines for known contaminants. It further suggests a site-specific, needs-based approach to remediation of degraded groundwater. Artificial Recharge Strategy (ARS) (DWA, 2010) The DWA developed the Artificial Recharge Strategy (ARS) aimed to use natural sub-surface storage as part of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) wherever technologically, economically, environmentally, and socially feasible. The ARS is informed by relevant planning document such as the: • National Water Resource Strategy; and • Groundwater Strategy Artificial Groundwater Recharge: Recent Initiatives in Southern Africa (DWA, 2010) The booklet provides an overview of the status of artificial recharge in Southern Africa and lists resources that are easily accessible to anyone considering this water storage, treatment, and conservation measure. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 18 Second and Third Editions of the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS II, 2013); (NWRS III, 2023) The NWRS II (2013) notes that much still needs to be done in the areas of implementation of water resource protection programmes and monitoring of ecosystem health to proactively minimize degradation of the resource, focus on rehabilitation efforts and ensure compliance with sustainability. The NWRS III (2023) calls for the development of government policies and strategies for proactive measures to mitigate water resource quality degradation and address legacy deterioration; while maintaining healthy water ecosystems (i.e., groundwater) to ensure their continued provision of ecosystem services. National Groundwater Strategy, 2 nd Edition (NGS, 2016) The NGS (2016) notes that the mining sector is faced with legacy issues of past pollution, for example, acid mine drainage. It further stipulates that the development of new mines in water-scarce areas and pristine environments requires planning to decide for the transfer of water and development of new sources, and appropriate attention to waste processing and remediation. Integrated Water Quality Management Strategy (IWQMS, 2017) Principle 10 of the IWQMS dwells on the promotion of green/ecological infrastructure restoration and rehabilitation and restoration of degraded catchments. However, the IWQMS also notes that the costs associated with rehabilitation of degraded water resources, or of emergency responses to pollution incidents can be extremely high. Department of Water Affairs: Environmental Rehabilitation Policy (DWA, 2014) The discussion document highlights the need for an environmental rehabilitation policy linked to water resources. The policy is envisioned to lay the foundation and clarify the approach for DWS to implement, regulate and facilitate environmental rehabilitation within its mandate as custodian authority over water resources. National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP, 2018) The NW&SMP (2018) states that implementation of the waste discharge strategy is of critical importance to increase the funding available for the management and rehabilitation of polluted catchments, but also to incentivize the reduction of pollution. DWS Best Practice Guidelines (BPGs) for Water Resource Protection in South Africa Mining Industry (DWAF, 2006, 2007, 2008). The DWS developed a series of Best Practice Guidelines (BPGs) for mines dealing with pollution prevention and water management strategies and tools. Below is a list of the available BPGs: • BPG A1. Small-Scale Mining (Standard Format). • BPG A1.1 Small-Scale Mining (User Format). • BPG A2. Water Management for Mine Residue Deposits. • BPG A3. Water Management in Hydrometallurgical Plants. • BPG A4. Pollution Control Dams. • BPG A5. Water Management for Surface Mines. • BPG A6. Water Management for Underground Mines. • BPG G1. Storm Water Management. • BPG G2. Water and Salt Balances. • BPG G3. Water Monitoring Systems. • BPG G4. Impact Prediction. • BPG. G5 Water Management Aspects for Mine Closure. • BPG. H1. Integrated Mine Water Management. • BPG. H2. Pollution Prevention and Minimization of Impacts. • BPG. H3. Water Reuse and Reclamation. • BPG. H4. H4 - Water Treatment. 3. GROUNDWATER IMPACTS Global availability of sufficient good quality groundwater is important in meeting agricultural, domestic, industrial developments and environmental requirements to ensure sustainable food security for all (Cole et al. 2018; Masindi and Abiye 2018; Gomez et al., 2019). Groundwater is now considered a viable alternative source of water supply. However, steady population growth, land-use Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 19 changes, and anthropogenic activities threaten the water resource systems reliability and resilience (Elmhagen et al., 2015; Dlamini et al., 2019; Morris 2019). Figure 8 below represents three main categories of impacts causing groundwater resources degradation. Figure 8: Three main categories of impacts causing degradation of water resources. 4. REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER The current Rehabilitation Management Guidelines are developed for the control and management of the groundwater resources as per impacting activities discussed under domestic, mining, industrial, forestry and solid waste sectors. The RMGs provide guidance to the water users on the step-by-step rehabilitation measures/interventions to be followed for executing rehabilitation with specific attention to planning, design, implementation, and monitoring for the identified impacts. The generic approach followed for each water sector (Section 4.1.3 to 4.6.3) comprises of five phases (including stakeholder engagement running concurrently with all phases), namely: • Diagnostic Phase which entails determining the conditions and the type, size, and extent of impacts on each sector; • Planning and Assessment aimed at the assessment and collation of available information from maps and datasets and the review and assessment of legal considerations; • Defining Rehabilitation Objectives which provides the objectives of rehabilitation to ensure the impacts are addressed; • Execution Phase which involves providing recommendations on techniques and methods to address impacts identified. Consideration is also given to the protection of water resources ecosystem services, people, and livelihoods; • Monitoring Phase, Evaluation and Reporting which entails: o Monitoring of the techniques and methods employed to ensure rehabilitation interventions implemented are effective and yield the desired results; Over- abstraction •Over-abstraction leads to the drying up of boreholes. •Lowered groundwater tables result in a decoupling of the groundwater and surface water system, and impact on groundwater- dependent ecosystems •Forestry and associated alien vegetation species uses interflow and lowers groundwater levels Water Quality •Anthropogenic activities attributed to mining (acidification and increased metal content), urban development (salinization, eutrophication, microbial pollution), industry (infiltration of chemicals and toxins), and the intensification of agricultural practices (sedimentation, infiltration of agro- chemicals and salinization through irrigation return flows). Climate Change •Hydrological variability induced by climate change has an effect on groundwater resources, and ultimately affects ecosystems dependent on such resources •Climate change has impact on groundwater as it may influence the resource by reducing recharge Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 20 o Evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and o Determination of maintenance objectives. 4.1 DOMESTIC 4.1.1 Description Groundwater is an essential water resource that is critical in contributing to the country’s water security and universal access to water and sanitation. Over 280 cities and towns (~66% of SA), are solely or partially dependent on groundwater for domestic needs (Knuppe, 2011), while over 74% of the rural population in SA is entirely dependent on groundwater (UN Water, 2006). Domestic waste has a profound effect on the underlying groundwater quality, especially in the areas surrounding domestic Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs) and septic systems. Improperly designed, located, constructed, or maintained septic systems can leak bacteria, viruses, household chemicals, and other contaminants into shallow groundwater systems causing serious problems (Hubbard et al., 2016). The possibility of extended survival of various sources of microbial contamination indicates the need to properly monitor groundwater contamination to identify the presence of microbial contaminants. (Kim and Kim, 2012). 4.1.2 Types of Impacts Table 5 below presents the main categories of impacts that affect groundwater resources for domestic use as reported by various authors. Table 5: The main categories of impacts that affect groundwater resources for domestic use. Type of Impact Description of Impacts Authors Over-abstraction Over-abstraction of groundwater resources is caused by mismanagement of the resource which influences frequent aquifer failure, which in turn leads to the drying up of boreholes. In addition, over-abstraction also leads to salt intrusion into the aquifer, especially at the coastal areas and when the salty geology of the area is disturbed. The consequences of over-abstraction of groundwater in the long-term are as follows: • Lowered groundwater tables result in decoupling of the groundwater and surface water system, including water exchange between rivers, wetlands, and springs; • Borehole failure; • Reduction of water in surface water bodies such as rivers and wetlands; • Deterioration of water quality; • Increased pumping costs; and • Land subsidence. Groundwater over-abstraction does not only result in aquifer depletion and water quality degradation but also negatively affects the ecological integrity of streams and wetlands and results in significant losses of habitat and biodiversity. Knüppe, (2011) Sewage and pit latrine contamination Biological contaminants in groundwater resources include algae and microbial organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Drinking water contaminated by microbial contaminants can result in many serious human diseases, including typhoid, diarrhea and cholera. The Bhowmick et al., (2019). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 21 Type of Impact Description of Impacts Authors COVID-19 virus which is primarily transmitted from person-to person through respiratory droplets has resulted in a pandemic affecting every corner of the world. Interestingly, water contaminated by this virus can also threaten human health. Lokhandwala and Gautam (2020) Li et al., (2021) Feedlot contamination Groundwater is vulnerable to pollution from feedlots or cattle kraals and stock watering points in areas with high rainfall and shallow water tables. Groundwater vulnerability is potentially significant in environments with high permeability, such as sandy and gravelly soils, or where fractured bedrock lies close to the ground surface Livestock watering points rely on groundwater, therefore the distance of a borehole to a watering point either increases or decreases the risk of contaminated water gaining access to groundwater via a borehole. The closer the distance of the watering point to the borehole, the greater the risk of contamination. The main pollution source is animal faecal contamination, which is characterised by a high, rapidly bio-degradable organic content, a high concentration of nutrients, and numerous potential disease-causing organisms (pathogens). Pathogens and nitrates are the main contaminants of concern for groundwater used for drinking purposes in rural areas . DWAF (2004) 4.1.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of human-induced effluent from sewage and pit latrines Although groundwater is perceived at least as susceptible to contamination by indicator bacteria or human pathogens compared to surface water, groundwater pollution is known to be imminent in most developing countries owing to increased anthropogenic activities apart from possible natural pollutants (Clemens et al., 2020). Pollution of groundwater can occur due to either point source such as municipal sewage treatment plant or as a result of non-point sources characterised by the diffusion of pollutants. While groundwater rehabilitation from point source pollution is easy to undertake, rehabilitation for non-point sources is difficult due to the extent of spread (Talabi and Kayode, 2019). Hence, the infiltration of untreated wastewater into aquifers highly endangers the availability of fresh water for human consumption, especially in semi-arid areas (Clemens et al., 2020). The developed RMGs below focus on the improvement of the management of human-induced effluent from sewage and pit latrines contaminating groundwater. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: The diagnostic phase of the project involves the collection of information that would give a general overview of the status of groundwater pollution within the target area. Step 1: Conduct an environmental audit. Step 2: Undertake a review of historical groundwater quality data. Step 3: Review incident reports supplied by various organizations involved in potential pollution activities and annual reports on the monitoring of WWTWs. (e.g., Green Drop annual reports). Step 4: Ascertain and summarize the types of groundwater contaminants based on reviewed data and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 22 literature. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Undertake a site visit and assessment for ground truthing. Step 2: Establish the location of boreholes and springs in relation to their proximity to pit latrines or WWTW. Step 3: Identify potential sources of groundwater pollution such as WWTW in urban areas, and septic tanks or pit latrines in the case of informal settlements and rural areas. Step 4: Establish and summarize the extent of groundwater pollution in the area. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives Establish clear goals or objectives of the rehabilitation informed by the data collated in Phase 1 and 2. The objectives of undertaking groundwater rehabilitation for domestic use are to: • Reduce microbiological pollution down to acceptable levels as stipulated in the water quality guidelines for domestic water use; • Reduce contaminant concentrations to meet specific regulatory standards; and • Restore groundwater quality to a level that supports safe human consumption. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Apply the ex-situ 2 treatment technology such as the Pump and Treat technique. Step 2: Apply a filtration system to remove particulate matter from the pumped groundwater. Step 3: Apply ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation for effective removal of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Step 4: Apply chlorine disinfection which is a common form of disinfection that is effective against harmful bacteria and virus. Step 5: Establish a protection zone to protect a borehole from contact with pathogenic micro- organisms (e.g., bacteria and viruses) which can emanate from a source (e.g., septic system) located close to the borehole. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Monitoring must be undertaken to determine the following: • Changes in the concentrations of microbiological contaminates over time – trend analysis; • Pump and Treat: monitor water quality in terms of chemical reactions, before injecting it back to the aquifer. Monitoring should be undertaken periodically and concurrent to the pumping activities. Note: After pumping water from underground to the surface, chemical reactions when exposed to oxygen and other gases may change the chemical content or pollute water. • Pollution migration in relation to groundwater flow direction; and • If the quality is improving or deteriorating further, for improved management of the resource. 2 Extraction of groundwater through pumping from aquifer, treatment on surface, and returning of the treated water back into the aquifer. Ex-situ techniques are mainly characterised by Pump and Treat approach. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 23 Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date; and • Overall status of the rehabilitated area in relation to the rehabilitation objectives. Scenario 2: Control and management of groundwater over-abstraction activities for domestic uses Groundwater over-abstraction results not only in aquifer depletion and water-quality degradation but also affects the ecological integrity of groundwater-dependent ecosystems (streams and wetlands) causing significant losses of habitat and biodiversity especially when there is a strong connection between surface and groundwater resources. The developed RMGs below focus on the control and management of groundwater over-abstraction activities for domestic uses. Section 26 of the NWA limits the purpose, manner, or extent of water use, and requires that the use of groundwater be monitored, measured, recorded, and be registered with the responsible authority. The below scenario will focus on providing practical guidance on how to control and manage hydrogeological impact of (A) proposed or (B) existing groundwater abstraction activities. (A) Proposed Groundwater Abstraction Activities PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase No diagnostic steps should be undertaken for new groundwater water abstraction activities proposed, because there are no existing impacts. However, it must be noted that there is a requirement for the development of a conceptual groundwater model for the identification and prediction of potential impacts and supporting recommended mitigation measures (Figures 9 and 10). The person(s) applying for the abstraction activities must at this stage compile a technical motivational report to DWS detailing the following key information: • Property description in terms of size and quaternary catchment where abstraction activities will take place; • Proposed abstraction point(s); and • Water use requirements i.e., groundwater abstraction from X number of boreholes at X volume. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Based on the information collated in the technical motivational report, the person(s) intending to undertake abstraction activities must indicate the type of authorization needed for the proposed new water use. Figure 9 below presents available authorization processes for groundwater within the DWS. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 24 Figure 9: DWS Water Use Authorization Processes for Groundwater Step 2: Consider the following exclusions pertaining to Schedule 1 and General Authorization: Schedule 1: • Small-scale gardening excludes abstraction of groundwater for domestic garden irrigation or subsistence farming; and • Livestock watering excludes feedlots. General Authorization (GA): Basic Equation for General Authorization 3 : Volume for a property (in m 3 /a) = GA of the quaternary catchment (in m 3 /ha/a) x property size (in ha) Example: • A property of 120 ha size i.e., quaternary catchments G22A to G22K, which have a GA of 400 m 3 /ha/a) would result in a Section 21(a) GA groundwater abstraction volume for the property of 48 000 m 3 /a (i.e 400 m 3 /ha/a x 120 ha) • However, this would be reduced to 40 000 m 3 /a, because of the maximum GA groundwater abstraction volume of 40 000 m 3 /a for any single property. Any groundwater abstraction above 40 000 m 3 /a would therefore require a Water Use License (WUL), whereas any groundwater abstraction below 40 000 m 3 /a would require a less intensive groundwater use registration under the GA. • Using a smaller sized property of say 5 ha would result in a Section 21(a) groundwater abstraction volume of 2 000 m 3 /a for the property (i.e., 400 m 3 /ha/a x 5 ha), therefore in this case any groundwater abstraction above 2 000 m 3 /a would require a WUL. This example is generally why industrial and commercial groundwater users require a Section 21(a) WUL, due 3 General Authorization in terms of Section 39 of the National Water Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998) for water uses as defined in Section 21(a), Published in Government Notice 536 of 2016 Schedule 1 •Abstraction of reasonable water for domestic use, small scale gardenining & livestock watering •Excluded from Water Use License •If abstraction is greater than 10 cubic metres per day (averaged over a year), then it must be registered with the DWS General Authorization •Section 21(a) abstraction depends on property size & quaternary catchment •A maximum volume of 40 000 cubic metres per annum for a single property Water Use License •Abstraction exceeding Schedule 1 and General Authorization volumes requires Water Use License Application Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 25 to the generally small property size of <5 ha resulting in any planned groundwater use in excess of 2 000 m 3 /a requiring a WUL. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of groundwater abstraction activities must be clear from the onset. These objectives must be informed by the information and data collated in Phase 1 and 2 above. In general, some of the common aims and objectives of controlling and managing groundwater abstraction are as follows: • To prevent the groundwater resource (aquifer) from being over-utilised. If an aquifer is over- pumped a long-term depletion of the groundwater resource can result throughout the entire aquifer. This over-abstraction can negatively affect all users of the aquifer, including aquifer dependent ecosystems; • To optimise individual borehole pumping rates. If individual borehole pumping rates are too high, a localized depletion of groundwater results; • To prevent poor quality groundwater from entering the aquifer. If abstraction from the aquifer is too high, poor-quality groundwater can be drawn into the aquifer; and • To minimize groundwater contamination from surface sources such as pit latrines, animal kraals, fertilizers, and dipping tanks. For very large abstraction volumes (in the order of millions of cubic meters per annum) with multiple boreholes (i.e., a wellfield), numerical groundwater modelling showing the sustainability of the proposed abstraction volume and/or potential abstraction impacts might also be required. PHASE 4: Execution The person responsible for control and management of groundwater over-abstraction activities should appoint a relevant specialist to undertake a study that should include amongst others, desktop geological/hydrogeological assessment, field hydrocensus, drilling and test-pumping of the boreholes(s), recommended yield analysis and operational pumping regime of the borehole(s), groundwater quality analysis and the development of a groundwater model with supporting management recommendations. The key components of the hydrogeological study are described in detail in the steps presented in Figures 10 and 11 below. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 26 STEP 1: Desktop Description: Undertake a deskop study of the area to obtain a better understanding of the prevailing geological and hydrogeological conditions of the area Data to be collected: Rock types, aquifer types, aquifer classification nnderlying site, typical/general yields of boreholes in the immediate vicinity of site STEP 2: Hydrocensus Description: Undertake a hydrocensus within 1 km radius of the site Data to be collected: Borehole IDs; information on what each borehole is used for; borehole depths; groundwater levels & quality STEP 3: Borehole siting Description: Undertake a geophysical survey to optimize the drilling targets/positions for proposed boreholes. Techniques: Magnetic, Gravity, Electromagnetic, Electrical resistivity BOX 1 Figure 10: Components (desktop, hydrocensus and borehole siting) of the hydrogeological study. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 27 STEP 4: Borehole Drilling Description: Based on the target obtained in Step 3, drill the borehole & ensure it is properly developed. Data to be collected: Water strikes and blowing yields, Waters levels, Water samples STEP 5: Aquifer Pump Test Description: Undertake an aquifer pumping test on borehole(s) to determine the sustainable pumping rates Techniques/Tests: Step-Drawdown, Recovery & Constant Discharge tests STEP 6: Groundwater Model Description: Develop a groundwater model for the prediction of impacts such as cone of dewatering expected on other surrounding boreholes Outputs: Predicion of groundwater quantity and quality impacts BOX 2 Figure 11: Components (drilling, pump testing and groundwater model) of the hydrogeological study. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 28 PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Groundwater abstraction activities should be managed and monitored in terms of quantity and quality. This will ensure that the resource is used efficiently, and to its potential, and minimise the risk of deteriorating quality or availability. Besides the basic borehole information such as location, depth, and diameter, Figure 12 below illustrates water levels, abstraction rates, and water quality that should be monitored and recorded on a regular basis. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; Water Levels To establish that the aquifer is not over-pumped & to esure an efficient pumping rate is maintained for borehole(s) In certain areas it may be necessary to monitor water levels of non-utilised boreholes as well as production boreholes The units of measurement are in metres below ground level, measured to the nearest centimetre A dip meter, which consists of an electrical cable and a multimeter or a light, should be used for measuring water levels Water levels should be obtained on a monthly basis. Abstraction Rates This is to relate abstraction to water levels. Abstraction is measured in m 3 /day with a flow-meter, or by recording the discharge rate and the number of hours pumped per day In the absence of a flow-meter, daily abstraction needs to be monitored. Regular manual flow readings with a stopwatch and container are needed to verify the flow- meter’s accuracy Water Quality To assess whether the aquifer is being over-pumped & whether any contaminants have entered the aquifer. It may be necessary to analyse for specific determinants or micro-organisms on a regular basis (such as electrical conductivity, fluoride, nitrate and faecal coliforms). At least one comprehensive “background” analysis must be obtained and be used as a benchmark. The frequency of analyses should largely be based on the ambient groundwater quality. Figure 12: Groundwater Monitoring Components Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 29 • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date; and • Overall status of the rehabilitated area in relation to the rehabilitation objectives. (B) Existing Groundwater Abstraction Activities. This scenario is directly linked to the one presented in the previous section i.e., (A) Proposed Groundwater Abstraction Activities with a slight difference being that the current scenario i.e., (B) Existing Groundwater Abstraction Activities becomes applicable after Phase 1 to 5 in the previous section are completed and the abstraction activities are operational. Presuming the abstraction activities are in place, all cases of over-abstraction will be deduced from the monitoring reports of the data that is collected, captured, analysed, and interpreted as illustrated in Figure 13 below. Figure 13: Groundwater monitoring feedback cycle If over-abstraction is detected in certain boreholes, the following steps should be implemented: Step 1: Undertake a diagnostic assessment of the borehole(s) to identify issues relating to over- abstraction and water quality. Step 2: Based on the results obtained from the assessment in Step 1, the person(s) in charge of the borehole(s) should implement operational and management amendments in terms of modifying abstraction rates and monitoring frequency. Depending on the severity of the impacts, additional aquifer pumping tests should be undertaken to prevent any further groundwater level decline and potential impacts on the surrounding groundwater users. Collection of borehole data i.e Abstraction rates, Water levels & Water Quality Data Capturing Data Analysis & Interpretation Reporting Operational Changes i.e., modify abstraction rates & monitoring frequency Feedback Cycle Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 30 Note: Refer to Section 4.5.3 for details on the Rehabilitation of over-abstraction of groundwater caused by SFR activities. 4.2 MINING 4.2.1 Description Mining activities have an impact on water quality and quantity. Acid mine drainage (AMD) and/or acid rock drainage (ARD) is one of the most serious and potentially enduring environmental problems for the mining industry. Mining, in its nature, has a major water quality issue as it adversely impacts the environment and water resources. AMD causes a reduction in water resource pH, which increases the availability of dissolved metals for uptake by organisms and fish. 4.2.2 Types of impacts AMD occurs when sulphide minerals, such as pyrite (FeS 2 ), are exposed to air and water and undergo oxidation. This occurs primarily in coal and gold mines. After air contact in the presence of sulphide (mostly pyrite) the water is often acidic due to the production of sulphuric acid. The production of AMD depends on the rate of pyrite/sulphide oxidation and the influence of carbonate minerals in the host rock. AMD is characterised by an increase in acidity (low pH), increased metal concentrations, increased sulphate concentrations, and/or increased suspended solids. Known impacts of AMD on water resources include decant into rivers and streams and impact on aquatic ecosystems; corrosion of metal equipment and appliances; coloured water in streams and water unsuitable for use without treatment. Acidic water has been associated with many mine wastes including underground flows, mine decant and mine residue deposits. The generation, release, mobility, and attenuation of AMD are complex processes governed by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological factors. Figure 14 illustrates examples of sources, pathways, and receptors of AMD. Figure 14: Sources, pathways and receiving environment for AMD. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 31 4.2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of opencast and underground operations and improvement of quality of AMD polluted water. Mining activities impact on water quality. Acid mine drainage (AMD) and/or acid rock drainage (ARD) is one of the most serious and potentially enduring environmental problems. Mining pose major water quality issues as it adversely impacts the environment and water resources. The AMD and/or ARD lowers/reduces water pH, increasing the solubility of metals, which facilitates its bioavailability. The developed RMGs below focus on the improvement of the management of AMD water decanting from gold and coal opencast and underground operations. Note: During the rehabilitation process, it's crucial to identify potential risks, such as unforeseen chemical reactions or extreme weather events, and develop contingency plans to address these challenges. Undertake the steps illustrated in Figure 15 below to diagnose the issues relating to AMD. Figure 15: Steps to be followed during the Diagnostic Phase. The rehabilitation of AMD emanating from the opencast and underground operations triggers Section 21 water uses as illustrated in Figure 16 below. Step 1 Identify the sources of AMD i.e AMD decanting from a opencast pit or underground operations Step 2 Conduct a desktop assessment to determine the conditions of the opencast pit or underground operations From the existing information, deduce the dewatering rates, seeepage rates, recharge rates, groundwater levels & lowest topographical level Step 3 Collect groundwater samples from the workings and submit to an accredited laboratory for analysis The groundwater results must be interpreted to inform suitable treatment options for the water to be pumped from the source Step 4 Collect waste rock material samples from the workings and conduct a geochemical assessment The results of the assessment must be used to inform whether the waste rock material is non- acid generating & suitable for backfilling the operations PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 32 Figure 16: Steps to be followed during the Planning and Assessment Phase Rehabilitation objectives must be set based on information gathered in Phase 1 and 2. Figure 17 represents some of the common aims and objectives of the rehabilitation of AMD water decanting from opencast and underground operations. Figure 17: Aims and objectives of the rehabilitation of AMD water decanting from opencast and underground operations. Figure 18 represents passive methods that can be employed for the rehabilitation of AMD water decanting from opencast and underground operations. Step 1 Rehabilitation of AMD water emanating from the operations trigger Section 21 water uses Step 2 The person undertaking rehabilitation must determine the water uses likely to be triggered by the rehabilitation activities Examples of some water uses are: Sec 21 (j) for dewatering, Sec 21(g) temporary storage of water pumped from the workings, Section 21 (c) & (i) for decant in regulated areas & GN704, Regulation 4(c) for backfilling activities Step 3 The person undertaking rehabilitation activities must determine the below: Geohydrological conditiions of the workings, inflow & outflow rates, groundwater levels; Geochemical assessment detailing the type of waste material to be used for backfilling Step 1 Define clear rehabilitation objectives using information obtained in Phase1 &2. Examples of common aims & objectives Some of the common aims and objectives of rehabilitation of AMD are to pump water from the workings to reduce and maintain groundwater levels; treat AMD water to acceptable levels; backfill the operations and use the rehabilitated land for other purposes. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment PHASE 3: Rehabilitation Objectives Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 33 Figure 18: Passive Treatment Methods Box 3 below presents key considerations when undertaking backfilling activities for opencast operations. Considerations: Other considerations when backfilling opencast operations: • Once backfilling is completed, use a clay final layer below the topsoil cover – this must be compacted to reduce and minimize rainfall recharge into the rehabilitated opencast; • The final rehabilitated opencast topography must be capped, sloped, and engineered such that runoff is directed away from the rehabilitated area; and • Ensure the rehabilitated footprint is minimized, vegetated, and sloped to reduce rainfall recharge. A stormwater management plan 4 comprising berms and cut-off trenches must be implemented to ensure surface runoff is diverted around the rehabilitated area to drain back into the natural drainage lines and the natural environment. 4 The user of the RMGs should consult the DWS Best Practice Guidelines - G1. Storm Water Management for the compilation of the said stormwater management plan. •Pump/dewater AMD water from the opencast pit to ensure the hydraulic head is reduced below decanting levels •The pumped water must be captured, retained, and managed within the mine water systemsi.e., lined evaporation dams until the decant water quality reaches equilibrium. PUMP & TREAT •Intercept polluted seepage resulting from the opencast pit through concrete trenches •The design of the trench gradient must be such that the water is free- flowing without eroding the channel and polluting water resources. SEEPAGE INTERCEPTION •Backfilltheworkings usingmaterialsuchas wasterockmaterialthat hasbeensubjectedto geochemicaltesting.The materialshouldbenon- acidgenerating •Backfillingordeposition ofmaterialbackintothe workingsmustfollowa scientificallysound backfillingmethodology. BACKFILLING PHASE 4: Execution Passive Methods BOX 3 Note: Consideration must be given to the passive treatment methods to include constructed wetlands and nature-based solutions. Reverse Osmosis (RO) should also be considered as a treatment option for short to medium term. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 34 Figures 19 represents of passive and active methods that can be employed for the rehabilitation of AMD water decanting from opencast and underground operations. Figure 19: Active Treatment Methods PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Figure 20 illustrates monitoring procedures for pump and treat, seepage interception, and backfilled areas. Figure 20: Monitoring procedure to be followed for monitoring of employed rehabilitation methods. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. •Intheeventtherearehighvolumes ofAMDwaterencountered(>5 ℓ/s),treatmentstrategiesmustbe investigatedandimplementedin ordertorenderthewatersuitable forreuse. TREATMENT STRATEGY Ifthereisstillaresidualtreated water,onemustevaluateand negotiatealternativesoptionswith DWSi.e.,dischargeofsuchwater backintothewaterresource. DISCHARGE INTO WATER RESOURCE •Monitor the water levels within the opencast pit daily and report to the DWS a monthly basis. PUMP & TREAT •Monitor the quality of water at the trenches and downstream of the constructed wetland to assess the changes in quality of water over time. SEEPAGE INTERCEPTION •Developandimplementa dedicatedmonitoring programmetomonitor thegroundwaterlevel recoveryandpitwater qualityofthe rehabilitated/backfilled area. BACKFILLED AREAS PHASE 4: Execution Active Methods PHASE 5: Monitoring Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 35 Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date; and • Overall status of the rehabilitated area in relation to the rehabilitation objectives. Note: In undertaking the above recommended rehabilitation interventions, the users of the guidelines should also consult the below DWS series of Best Practice Guidelines (BPGs) for mines dealing with pollution prevention and water management strategies and tools: • BPG A1. Small-Scale Mining (Standard Format). • BPG A1.1 Small-Scale Mining (User Format). • BPG A2. Water Management for Mine Residue Deposits. • BPG A3. Water Management in Hydrometallurgical Plants. • BPG A4. Pollution Control Dams. • BPG A5. Water Management for Surface Mines. • BPG A6. Water Management for Underground Mines. • BPG G1. Storm Water Management. • BPG G2. Water and Salt Balances. • BPG G3. Water Monitoring Systems. • BPG G4. Impact Prediction. • BPG. G5 Water Management Aspects for Mine Closure. • BPG. H1. Integrated Mine Water Management. • BPG. H2. Pollution Prevention and Minimization of Impacts. • BPG. H3. Water Reuse and Reclamation. • BPG. H4. H4 - Water Treatment. 4.3 INDUSTRIAL 4.3.1 Description Industrial effluents are discharges from various industries, and various organic pollutants have been found in different water resources. They belong to various sources such as pesticides, fertilizers, hydrocarbons, phenols, plasticizers, biphenyls, detergents, oils, greases, pharmaceuticals, etc. Industrial effluent poses a risk to both groundwater and surface water quality. Besides, contamination of groundwater not only worsens the soil and crop quality, but also affects human, animal, and aquatic lives. 4.3.2 Types of Impacts The composition of the industrial effluent wastewater depends heavily on the industry from which it originates. Typical contaminants would fall into one or more of the following categories: dissolved organics, suspended solids, priority pollutants (e.g., phenols), heavy metals, colour, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), microbial contamination, oil and grease, refractory compounds, and volatiles. These contaminants, if untreated, have the potential to percolate into groundwater resources. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 36 4.3.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of industrial effluent ingressing into groundwater Industrial activities can cause industrial effluent. The effluent can emanate from various industries and percolates through the soil into the groundwater. The composition of the industrial effluent falls into one or more of the following categories: dissolved organics, suspended solids, priority pollutants (e.g., phenols), heavy metals, colour, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), microbial contamination, oil and grease, refractory compounds, and volatiles. These contaminants, if untreated, affect human, animal, and aquatic lives. The developed RMGs presented below focus on the improvement of the management of industrial effluent contaminating groundwater. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify the type of industry and the source of effluent. Step 2: Initiate communication with the authorities responsible for the catchment including the communities that rely on groundwater for use. Step 3: On a desktop level and from existing information, assess the conditions of the site within which the industry is located. Step 4: Employ available tools such as Arc GIS to determine and identify the areas affected. Step 5: Collect groundwater samples from the source effluent in question and submit them to an accredited lab for groundwater quality analysis. The results from the analysis will inform the treatment methods/options to be employed. Step 6: Identify current potential groundwater use around the area and the likelihood of migration of pollution from the source. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Undertake a site visit to determine and obtain general site information. The data to be collected is critical and will assist in identifying potentially affected sensitive receptors (schools, homes, water bodies), and significant exposure pathways. Step 2: Based on the information collected, determine whether pollution pathways exist and the possibility of humans or ecological receptors to be affected. Step 3: Determine aquifer status in terms of vulnerability to pollution. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives Establish clear goals or objectives of the rehabilitation (using data collected in Phase 1 and 2) in relation to the types of contaminants emanating from industries. Examples of contaminants are dissolved organics, suspended solids, priority pollutants (e.g., phenols), heavy metals, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), microbial contamination, oil and grease, refractory compounds, and volatiles. Common aims and objectives of undertaking groundwater rehabilitation for industrial effluent would be: • To prevent all contaminants from ingressing into polluting groundwater; and • To prevent contaminants from migrating offsite into the nearby sensitive receptors. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 37 PHASE 4: Execution Depending on the type of pollutant, the treatment process should be selected accordingly, and a certain effluent may require a combination of unit operations to achieve the correct final effluent quality. The below treatment techniques/methods are available for use: • Waste minimisation - treatment solution can be saved by critically examining the sources of waste within a facility and then trying to minimise their discharge. This can be achieved through improved management of materials and operations. • Primary treatment - removes solids and oils, neutralises excessive acidity or alkalinity and prepares the effluent for either further downstream treatment (biological or chemical) or for final discharge. Unit operations include flow equalisation, acid, or alkali dosing, hydrocyclones, static or rotary screens, flotation, and flocculation/sedimentation. • Biological (secondary) treatment - involves the reaction of the effluent (after primary treatment) with oxygen and microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to remove oxygen- consuming materials. Examples are aerobic technologies for industrial effluent are the moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) and the HYBACS process. • Tertiary treatment - The most common form of tertiary treatment is filtration to remove remaining suspended matter from upstream biological processes or following coagulation in a physical-chemical treatment. Another form of tertiary treatment is the removal of colour and residual refractory pollutants using ozone or other suitable oxidizing agents. Treatment with Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) may also be necessary. In certain cases, electrodialysis is useful to remove various ionic species. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting. Monitoring should involve the following: • Changes in the concentrations of contaminates over time – trend analysis; • Migration of pollutants in relation to groundwater flow direction; and • Establish if the treatment technology applied is effective or whether there are any additional interventions required. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date; and • Overall status of the rehabilitated area in relation to the rehabilitation objectives. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 38 4.4 AGRICULTURAL 4.4.1 Description Inputs such as fertilisers during irrigation processes may have a negative impact on groundwater quality. Anthropogenic activities such as irrigation may influence the chemistry of groundwater and determine the level of contaminants in groundwater (Napacho and Manyele, 2010; Li et al., 2016; Hwang et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2017). Common contaminants associated with agricultural activities include the elevated concentration of Nitrate (NO3-) as determined by authors such as Lalumbe and Kanyerere (2022a-b), who associated high concentration of NO3- to point source input of Mg2+- NO3- and K+- NO3- fertilisers in arid to semi-arid region of Limpopo Province, South Africa. 4.4.2 Types of Impacts Groundwater containing NO3- concentration level of above 11 mg/l is considered to be unsuitable for drinking purposes (World Health Organisation - WHO, 2011). This is associated with various water borne diseases associated with infants and sometimes adults. Owing to the parachute type of research discussed by Lalumbe and Kanyerere (2022a), the majority of groundwater users in rural areas utilise contaminated groundwater for drinking purposes, without any form of treatment or knowledge of the quality of groundwater. Such results inform the design of groundwater education interventions. 4.4.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Agricultural activities have several negative groundwater impacts. Inputs such as fertilisers negatively affect groundwater quality, especially where the water table is high (i.e., shallow groundwater levels). Anthropogenic activities, such as irrigation, may influence the chemistry of groundwater and determine the level of contaminants in groundwater. Common contaminants associated with agricultural activities include elevated concentrations of Nitrate (NO 3 -). Irrigation return flows also contribute to the buildup of salts causing salinisation. The developed RMGs presented below focus on the improvement of nitrate contaminated groundwater. To improve the availability and access to clean and safe groundwater, (Verlicchi and Grillini, 2022; Lalumbe and Kanyerere, 2022b) suggested that adequate and reliable groundwater rehabilitation techniques should be applied. Various in-situ and ex-situ techniques have been applied in the rehabilitation of agricultural activities associated with contamination globally. Pump and treat methods are considered cheaper and more sustainable as compared to in-situ methods (Lalumbe et al., 2022). Historically, in-situ groundwater rehabilitation techniques were more common until early 2000, when things changed, and ex-situ methods were more favourable for groundwater rehabilitation (EPA, 2017). Groundwater does not require immediate treatment when ex-situ methods such as pump and treat are applied because the water should first be pumped, transported and thereafter be treated before use (Favara and Gamlin, 2017). Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of nitrate-contaminated groundwater PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify available boreholes and springs within the area. Step 2: Review historical groundwater quality data. Step 3: Identify potential sources of contamination – natural (i.e., geogenic) or anthropogenic. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 39 Step 4: Identify the extent of groundwater use in the area. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct a site visit with the relevant specialist. Step 2: Conduct hydrocensus and determine groundwater flow direction. Step 3: Collect groundwater samples from the boreholes within the area, including samples from upstream and downstream (within 1-2km radius) of the area. Step 4: Submit samples to an accredited laboratory for analysis. Data from the analysis should be used to determine the concentration of contaminants. Typical parameters of concern are nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, pH, Total Dissolved Solids, and alkalinity. Step 5: Map the extent and spatial distribution of contamination. Step 6: Determine the hydro-geochemical processes influencing groundwater quality to identify the source of contamination. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives These objectives must be determined by the information and data gathered in Phase 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • Rehabilitate groundwater for water supply; and • Rehabilitate groundwater for the improvement of groundwater quality in the aquifer. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Apply the ex-situ treatment technology such as the Pump and Treat technique for Groundwater supply Step 2: Apply in-situ 5 rehabilitation such as such as Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) and Permeable Reaction Barriers (PRB) for improvement of groundwater quality in the aquifer. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting. Monitoring should include the following: • Monitor changes in the concentrations of contaminates over time (1-2 years) – trend analysis; • Pump and Treat: monitor water quality in terms of chemical reactions, before injecting it back to the aquifer. Note: After pumping water from underground to the surface, chemical reactions when exposed to oxygen and other gases may change the chemical content or pollute water. • Monitoring of the migration of pollutants in relation to groundwater flow direction; and • Establish if the treatment technology applied is effective or whether there are any additional interventions required. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. 5 Involves on-site rehabilitation without removal of contaminated groundwater. This technique combines injection of degrading microorganisms and nutrients into the aquifer to stimulate biodegradation. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 40 Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date; and • Overall status of the rehabilitated area in relation to the rehabilitation objectives. 4.5 FORESTRY 4.5.1 Description Forestry refers to the science or practice of planting and managing forests. Forestry-related activities use interflow and baseflow which impact surface water by lowering surface water levels and to a certain extent lowering groundwater levels because groundwater is an important contributor to baseflow. Surface water bodies such as rivers, wetlands, and estuaries interact with groundwater (as discussed in Section 1.3) and effective water management requires a good understanding of the way in which interaction between groundwater and surface water takes place. The interactions between groundwater and surface water take many forms, which affect both the quantity and the quality of water in both resources. These interactions are often difficult to observe and measure, which creates uncertainty regarding their magnitude, their effect, and the appropriate form of management. Definitions: Interflow is the rapid flow of water along the unsaturated/vadose zone flow paths and has the potential to infiltrate the subsurface and move both vertically and laterally before discharging into other water bodies (WRC, 2004). Baseflow is defined as the portion that contributes to the stream by delayed sources and groundwater (Hall 1968), and it is considered the lowest discharge of the stream in the dry season. 4.5.2 Types of Impacts Groundwater discharge is believed to dominate dry season flows in perennial river systems and to sustain aquatic biodiversity (Le Maitre and Colvin, 2008). Some portion of the flow (to maintain a particular Electrical Conductivity (EC) for river, wetland, or estuary) is derived from surface water (runoff), and some from groundwater via groundwater contribution to baseflow (GWBF). Use of groundwater can reduce GWBF hence impacting on the flow, maintenance of river ecostate, and the degree to which Ecological Water Requirements (EWR) can be sustained by GWBF (DWS, 2017c). Vegetation affects aquifers by directly extracting groundwater from saturated strata and reducing the proportion of rainfall that is eventually recharged by interfering with the passage of precipitation from the atmosphere to the water table in recharge areas (Le Maitre et al., 1998) Consequently, studies BOX 4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 41 highlighted the importance of incorporating evaporation losses in modelling recharge (Bredenkamp et al., 1995; Le Maitre et al., 1998). Moreover, afforestation and alien vegetation have impacts on interflow and baseflow which leads to Stream Flow Reduction (SFR). Section 36(2) of the National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998) (NWA) states that SFR activity is any activity that is likely to reduce the availability of water in a watercourse to the Reserve, to meet international obligations, or to other water users significantly (DWAF,1999). Over-abstraction of surface water from a river has a direct impact on interflow which in turn causes streamflow reduction and results in forestry-related impacts. Similarly, these impacts are encountered when there is a relationship between interflow and groundwater - interflow often occurs in the perched shallow water table. Over-abstraction of groundwater within perched aquifers also impacts interflow. The consequences of over-exploitation are confirmed by Knüppe, (2011) as lowered groundwater tables resulting in a decoupling of the groundwater and surface water systems, including water exchange between these systems. Poor land use management activities such as agricultural, river diversions and developments interrupt flow paths and connectivity between stream channels and groundwater which causes water losses. Groundwater recharge is affected by forestry, largely due to the greater uptake of soil water by trees and to increased water-holding capacity of forest soils, arising from higher organic contents. Groundwater quality may be affected by enhanced acidification and nitrification under forests. 4.5.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of over-abstraction of groundwater caused by stream flow reduction activity. Forestry-related activities use interflow and baseflow which pose an impact on lowering both surface and groundwater levels due to the interaction that occurs when groundwater contributes to surface water or when the river recharges groundwater. Afforestation and alien vegetation have impacts on interflow and baseflow which leads to stream flow reduction (SFR). The developed RMGs below focus on the improvement of the management of over-abstraction of groundwater caused by SFR activities. To sustain the critical role played by groundwater in the sustainability of the ecological ecosystem, especially during dry or fair-weather conditions, groundwater recharge and discharge must be safeguarded. Quantifying the contribution of groundwater to surface water is necessary to safeguard groundwater availability and the ecological needs of the environment. This can be done using various techniques such as direct seepage measurements using seepage meters; hydraulic tests using mini piezometers; chemical analysis; trace tests; hydrograph separation. However, quantifying groundwater contribution to surface water such are rivers require a demonstration of feasible or practical methods. Such methods require systematic review and piloting them in catchment of different physiographic characteristics from both fluxes and tracer perspectives. PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase Step 1: Identify available commercial forestry e.g., pine trees, and gum trees (eucalyptus trees) within the area. Step 2: Review historical data on stream flow within the area. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 42 Step 3: Identify potential sources of stream flow changes: abstraction for water supply or forestry and vegetation impacts. Step 4: Identify the extent of groundwater use in the area. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment Step 1: Conduct a site visit with the relevant specialist. Step 2: Conduct hydrocensus and determine groundwater flow direction. Step 3: Conduct field assessment on the extent of the receding groundwater and river water levels. Step 4: Map the extent and spatial distribution of plantations within the area. Step 5: Establish the extent of forestry impacts on stream flow reduction in the area. PHASE 3: Identify and define the Rehabilitation Objectives The objectives of rehabilitation should involve the improvement of groundwater levels and discharge to wetlands, springs, or streams. The objectives must be established based on the information and data gathered in Phase 1 and 2 above. Below is a list of common aims and objectives: • To improve groundwater contribution to river baseflow (groundwater discharges into rivers); • To improve groundwater contribution to wetlands (groundwater discharges into wetlands); • To improve groundwater contribution to springs (quantification of spring flows) and other groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs). PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Select an appropriate and successful plantation removal approaches for implementation i.e, namely, physical (or mechanical) control, chemical control, and biocontrol. Step 2: Remove the plantations (using the methods and/or combination of methods in Step 1) that interfere with the passage of precipitation to the water table in recharge areas. Step 3: Prioritize the removal of plantations with a deep root system (tap root) that intercept with groundwater table using the appropriate techniques mentioned in Step 1. Step 4: Apply an appropriate mechanical or chemical method such as stump killer herbicide to prevent roots from sprouting again. Step 5: Establish a protection zone along a river/stream to protect stream flows as per Dennis et al., 2012. [L = (T*i)/R Where L = Distance from a river, T=Transmissivity(m2/d), i=Groundwater, Gradient, R=Recharge(m/d)]. Step 6: Establish a protection zone along a wetland to protect stream flows as per Dennis et al., 2012. [L=SQRT(T*i*W*/R) Where L = Distance from a wetland, T= Transmissivity (square metres/day), i = Groundwater gradient, W = Wetland Perimeter, R = Recharge (metres/day)] PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting. It is not expected that the system (groundwater recharge, groundwater discharge, and stream flow) would recover immediately after this rehabilitation, therefore periodic (preferably quarterly) monitoring can be performed to establish whether or not the techniques/methods applied are effective or whether there are any additional interventions required. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 43 Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation Report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date; and • Overall status of the rehabilitated area in relation to the rehabilitation objectives. 4.6 SOLID WASTE 4.6.1 Description According to Polasi et al., (2020) waste management associated with refuse dumps and solid waste disposal has become a major environmental issue in South Africa. Landfills are the places where garbage/solid waste is taken to be buried. Landfills with a significant risk to groundwater resources are supposed to have liners to prevent contaminants from getting into the groundwater. However, if there is no layer or the liner it is cracked or compromised, contaminants from the landfill can make their way down into the groundwater. As reported by Vasanthi et al., (2007) leachate produced by municipal solid waste disposal sites contains a significant amount of substances that are likely to contaminate groundwater. 4.6.2 Types of Impacts Leachate which is a strong reducing liquid produced from landfills percolates through soil into groundwater. Leachate typically contains some of the following examples of metals i.e., Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), and Nickel (Ni), and during its percolation through soil it reacts with Fe, and Mn to reduce them into more soluble species, thus increasing their concentration and/or solubility in groundwater. 4.6.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Scenario 1: Rehabilitation of leachate ingressing into groundwater Landfill sites cause leachate, which is a strong reducing liquid produced from landfills. This leachate can percolate through the soil into groundwater if there is no liner present or if the functioning of the liner system is compromised. Leachate typically contains lead, cadmium, chromium and nickel, and during its percolation through the soil it reacts with iron, and manganese to reduce them into more soluble species, thus increasing their concentration in groundwater. The developed RMGs presented below focus on the management of leachate ingressing into groundwater from landfill sites. The initial stage of groundwater rehabilitation from a landfill site requires a decision on the sensitivity of groundwater resources with respect to a land-based contamination source. Generally, the groundwater pathway is most likely to be impacted by contaminants in soil particularly if the contaminants are easily mobilised by infiltration and leaching processes. If the groundwater conditions on the site of interest are unknown, the groundwater pathway should be considered as a Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 44 relevant exposure route and in such cases, drinking water quality should be a point of compliance for risk assessment (DEA, 2010). PHASE 1: Diagnostic Phase: The diagnostic phase of the project is undertaken to establish a sound conceptual understanding of the relationship between the soil conditions and groundwater-surface water interactions which can be supported wherever possible with information from boreholes and trials. Step 1: Review historical groundwater quality and levels data. Step 2: Identify available boreholes and springs in the vicinity of the area. Step 3: Collect groundwater samples from the source effluent in question and submit them to an accredited lab for groundwater quality analysis. The results from the analysis will inform the treatment methods/options to be employed. Step 4: Identify current or potential groundwater use/users around the affected area and the likelihood of migration of pollution from the source. PHASE 2: Planning and Assessment In this phase, a qualitative risk assessment should be undertaken based on general site assessment information. This data would need to identify obvious environmental impacts (if any), potentially affected sensitive receptors (schools, homes, surface water bodies), and significant exposure pathways (drinking water wells). Step 1: Undertake site visit and assessment for a ground survey. Step 2: Establish if pollution pathways exist and the possibility of humans or ecological receptors to be affected. Step 3: Determine aquifer status in terms of vulnerability to pollution. PHASE 3: Identify and Define the Rehabilitation Objectives Establish clear goals or objectives of the rehabilitation (using data collected in Phase 1 and 2) linked to the protection of human health and the environment. Examples of toxic metals are Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), and Nickel (Ni), to acceptable levels. The objective of undertaking groundwater rehabilitation for landfill sites is to reduce or prevent all identifiable contaminants from polluting groundwater in the vicinity of the site. PHASE 4: Execution Step 1: Apply the in-situ treatment technology such as the Barrier and Cap Systems, and/or Phytoremediation techniques. Step 2: Construct groundwater containment or barrier systems through the injection of reagents within the treatment zone to prevent off-site migration of contaminants. PHASE 5: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting. Monitoring should involve the following: • Monitor changes in the concentrations of metal contaminates over time – trend analysis; • Monitoring of the migration of pollutants in relation to groundwater flow direction; and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 45 • Establish if the treatment technology applied is effective or whether there are any additional interventions required. Evaluation • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. Reporting A Rehabilitation report should be compiled and be accompanied by supporting information such as: • A map of disturbed and rehabilitated areas; • Before and after photos of rehabilitation including a significant landmark for comparison purposes, with a brief description including location, and date; and • Overall status of the rehabilitated area in relation to the rehabilitation objectives. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 46 5. RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD The Groundwater Rehabilitation Management Guidelines have been developed to address specific impact types emanating from various sectors through a phased approach. In implementing these guidelines, the below is a summary of recommendations to users: • The users of the guidelines should consider using readily available information from the DWS to make informed decisions. Examples of this information includes 1:500 000 scale hydrogeological map series, Aquifer Classification, Groundwater Quality, Aquifer Vulnerability and Aquifer Susceptibility Maps (https://www.dws.gov.za/Groundwater/Default.aspx). • The rehabilitation actions should be able to return the final remedies into their maximum beneficial use or to their predefined ambient conditions. • The target levels for groundwater rehabilitation should be based on the set environmental conditions such as groundwater resource quality objectives to ensure that protection for both human health and ecological ecosystem for current and future generations is realized. • Rehabilitation activities relating to impacts on groundwater quantity and quality must consider the priority areas which are sensitive and must be protected. These priority areas that must be protected are Strategic Water Source Areas. • Groundwater rehabilitation timeframes should be reasonable, be aligned to specific goals of rehabilitation, and must be based on the following: o Potential threat to human exposure and aquatic ecosystems; o The potential for achieving rehabilitation goals; o Type and extent of contamination or non-compliance with environmental background conditions; o Hydrogeologic characteristics; o Choice of rehabilitation technology, and its ability to remove contaminant mass under controlled conditions; o Design and capabilities of rehabilitation project to eliminate groundwater pollution to acceptable levels; o Public health and safety concerns associated with implementing the technology in or near a study area; o Public perception and community preferences; o Resources and relative cost of implementation. • The performance of a groundwater rehabilitation activity should be monitored. Performance monitoring can assess changes in groundwater so that project managers can modify rehabilitation actions to ensure maximum efficiency, protectiveness, and compliance. Performance monitoring can also demonstrate whether the rehabilitation technique applied is performing as expected. • Upon completion of the groundwater rehabilitation project, control of the source(s) of release must be ensured to reduce or eliminate, to the extent practicable, further releases of hazardous waste or hazardous constituents that may pose a threat to human health and the environment. • These guidelines are considered useful in the development and management of all types of groundwater schemes, i.e., rural, private, industrial, municipal bulk water supply, managed aquifer recharge, commercial agriculture, mining and construction dewatering schemes. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 47 REFERENCE LIST Antonio, M.E., & Price, S.R. 2021. Experiences and interactions with treatment staff: reactions from state prison inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 60(7), 423-443. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2021.1966155 Azubuike, C.C., Chikere, C.B., & Okpokwasili, G.C. 2016. Bioremediation techniques–classification based on site of application: principles, advantages, limitations, and prospects. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 32(11), 180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-016-2137-x Bhowmick, G.D., Dhar, D., Nath, D., Ghangrekar, M.M., Banerjee, R., Das, S., & Chatterjee, J. Coronavirus disease 2019. (COVID-19) outbreak: some serious consequences with urban and rural water cycle. NPJ Clean Water,3, 32. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-020-0079-1 Bonnechèr, B., & Van Sint Jan, S. 2019. Chapter 39 - Rehabilitation. DHM and Posturography, 541-547. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816713-7.00039-8 Brusseau, M.L. 2019. Chapter. 19 - Soil and Groundwater Remediation. Environmental and Pollution Science (Third Edition). 329-354. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814719-1.00019-7 Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality (BCMM). 2011. Water Services By-law. Provincial Gazette Extraordinary, 22 March 2011, No. 2532. Notice 4 of 2011. Chapelle, F.H., Widdowson, M.A., Brauner, J.S., Mendez III, E., & Casey, C.C. 2003. Methodology for Estimating Times of Remediation Associated with Monitored Natural Attenuation. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 03-4057. U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Information Services, Box 25286, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225-0286, 1-888-ASK-USGS (275-8747) Clemens, M., Khurelbaatar, G., Merz, R., Siebert, C., Van Afferden, M., & Rödiger, T. 2020. Groundwater protection under water scarcity; from regional risk assessment to local wastewater treatment solutions in Jordan. Science of The Total Environment, 706, 136066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136066. Cole, M.J., Bailey, R..M, Cullis, J.D.S., & Mark, G. 2018. Water for sustainable development in the Berg Water Management Area, South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 114(3/4), 2017- 20134. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2018/20170134 City of Johannesburg (CoJ). 2008. Water Services Risk By-Laws. City of Johannesburg (CoJ). 2015. Dolomite Risk By-Laws. City of Tshwane (TMM). 2003. Water Supply By-law. CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). 2017. Building resilience through sustainable groundwater use. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). 12p. (WLE Towards Sustainable Intensification: Insights and Solutions Brief 1). https://doi.org/10.5337/2017.208 Dennis, I., Witthüsser, K., Vivier, K., Dennis, R, & Mavurayi, A. 2012. Groundwater Resource Directed Measures. WRC Project: K8/891. Water Research Commission. Republic of South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2010.) Framework for the Management of Contaminated Land. Private Bag X 447, PRETORIA, 0001. Republic of South Africa. Department of Water Affairs (DWA). 2014. Environmental Rehabilitation Policy. Directorate Water Abstraction and Instream Use, Sub- Directorate Environment and Rehabilitation. Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 48 Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). 1997. National Water Policy (NWP). White paper on a national water policy for South Africa. Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). 2000. Policy and Strategy for Groundwater Quality Management in South Africa. Number W.1.0: First Edition. Private Bag X313, Pretoria, 0001, Republic of South Africa Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). 2004. Guidelines on Protecting Groundwater from Contamination; produced under: The NORAD-Assisted Programme for the Sustainable Development of Groundwater Sources under the Community Water and Sanitation Programme in South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2016. National Groundwater Strategy, Water Resource Planning, Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001, Republic of South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2017a. Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa. Report No. 3.2. Integrated Water Quality Management (IWQM) Strategy. Water Resource Planning Systems Series, DWS Report No.: 000/00/21715/16. Pretoria, South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2017b. Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa. Report No. 4.3. Note on the Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. Water Resource Planning Systems Series, DWS Report No.: 000/00/217115/20. Pretoria, South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2017c. Determination of Water Resources Classes and Resource Quality Objectives in the Breede-Gouritz Water Management Area: Quantification of the Ecological Water Requirements and changes in Ecosystem Goods, Services and Attributes. Water Ecosystems Management, DWS Report No.: RDM/WMA8/00/CON/CLA/0117. Pretoria, South Africa. Devika, N, & Rastogi, A.K. 2015. Remediation Techniques for BTEX Contamination of Groundwater- A Review. ETWQQM -2014 Conference Proceedings, Special Issue. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), 3(03), 1-6. Dlamini, S., Gyedu-Ababio, T. K., & Slaughter, A. 2019. The Loading Capacity of the Elands River: A Case Study of the Waterval Boven Wastewater Treatment Works, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 11,1049-1063. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2019.118062. Dwivedi, M. 2014. Groundwater Contamination and prevention. Available online: https://www.slideshare.net/mohitishere/groundwater-contamination-and-prevention. (Accessed on 12 November 2022). DWS. 2017d. Integrated Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa: Strategy – Edition 2 (Report No. 3.2) (Water Resource Planning Systems Series Report No. 000/00/21715/13, PRETORIA: Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). ENI. 2022. Remediation Technologies Handbook. Available online: https://www.eni.com/assets/documents/eng/enirewind/remediation/vademecum-eng.pdf (Accessed on 12 November 2022). Elmhagen, B., Destouni, G., Angerbjörn, A., Borgström, S., Boyd, E., Cousins. S.A.O., Dalén, L., Ehrlén, J., Ermold, M., Hambäck, P.A., Hedlund, J., Hylander, K., Jaramillo, F., Lagerholm, V.K.W., Lyon, S.W, Moor, H., Nykvist, B., Pasanen-Mortensen,M., Plue, J., Prieto C., Van der Velde, Y., & Lindborg, R. 2015. Interacting effects of change in climate, human population, land use, and Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 49 water use on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Journal of Ecology and Society, 20(1), 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07145-200123 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2004. Handbook of Groundwater Protection and Clean-up Policies for RCRA Corrective Action for Facilities Subject to Corrective Action Under Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2018. Examples of Groundwater Remediation at NPL Sites. EPA 542-R-18-002, https://www.epa.gov/remedytech (Accessed 07 November 2022) eThekwini Municipality (eTMM). 2017a. Integrated Development Plan 5 Year Plan: 2017/18-2021/22 Draft Review 2016-2017, Draft Report February 2016 Gomez, M., Perdiguero, J., & Sanz, A. 2019. Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Water Access in Rural Areas of Low- and Middle-Income Countries. MDP Journal of Water, 11(2), 202. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11020202 Hall, F. R. 1968. Base-flow recessions—A review. Water resources research, 4(5), 973-983. Hubbard, L., Keefe, S.H., Kolpin, D.W., Barber, L.B., Duris, J.W., Hutchinson, K.J., & Bradley, P.M. 2016. Understanding the hydrologic impacts of wastewater treatment plant discharge to shallow groundwater: before and after plant shutdown, Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 5(2), 864-874. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ew00128a Hyun-su Kim, H., and Kim, K. 2012. Microbial and chemical contamination of groundwater around livestock mortality burial sites in Korea-a review. Journal of Geosciences, 16, 479-489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12303-012-0036-1 Hubbert, M. K. 1940. The theory of groundwater motion. The Journal of Geology, 48(8, Part 1), 785- 944. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 1999. Technical options for the remediation of contaminated groundwater. Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria, E- mail: CHOUSE® IAEA.ORG. URL: http://www.iaea.org/programmes/inis/inis.htm Kennish, M.J. 2017. Estuaries: Anthropogenic Impacts. In: Finkl C., Makowski C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Coastal Science. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. King, J. and Pienaar, H. (eds). 2011. Sustainable use of South Africa’s inland waters: A situation assessment of Resource Directed Measures 12 years after the 1998 National Water Act. Water Research Commission. Pretoria. Lalumbe, L., Oberholster, P.J., & Kanyerere, T. 2022. Feasibility Assessment of the Application of Groundwater Remediation Techniques in Rural Areas: A Case Study of Rural Areas in the Soutpansberg Region, Limpopo Province, South Africa Le Maitre, D. C., Scott, D.F., & Colvin, C. A. 1999. A review of information on interactions between vegetation and groundwater. Water SA 25(2), 137-152. Le Maitre, D. C., & Colvin, C. A. 2008. Assessment of the contribution of groundwater discharges to rivers using monthly flow statistics and flow seasonality. Water SA 34(5), 549-564. Lokhandwala, S., & Gautam, P. 2020. Indirect impact of COVID-19 on environment: a brief study in Indian context. Journal of Environ Research, 188, 109807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109807 Li, P., Karunanidhi, D., Subramani, T., Srinivasamoorthy, K. 2021. Sources and Consequences of Groundwater Contamination. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 80(1): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00805-z Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 50 Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality (MMM). 2013. By-laws relating to Water Services. Provincial Gazette No 60 of 25 October 2013 Masindi, K., & Abiye, T. 2018. Assessment of natural and anthropogenic influences on regional groundwater chemistry in a highly industrialized and urbanized region: a case study of the Vaal River Basin, South Africa. Journal of Environmental Earth Sciences, 77(20), 722-736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7907-3 Masindi, V., & Foteinis, S. 2021. Groundwater contamination in sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for groundwater protection in developing countries. Journal of Cleaner Engineering and Technology, 2, 100038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2020.100038 Morris, D. 2019. Developing and exploring indicators of water sustainable development. Journal of Heliyon, 5, e01778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01778 National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), (Act No. 107 of 1998). 1998. Republic of South Africa. Government Gazette 19519. Government Printer, Cape Town. National Groundwater Strategy (NGS). 2016. Department of Water and Sanitation, Water Resources Planning Systems, Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. National Water Act (NWA) (Act No. 36 of 1998). 1998. Republic of South Africa. Government Gazette 39299. Government Printer, Cape Town. National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS), Second Edition. 2013. Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP). 2018. Ready for the Future and Ahead of the Curve. Volume 1: Call to Action, Version 10.1. Department of Water and Sanitation, Private Bag x 313, Pretoria, 0001. Republic of South Africa. Nkosi, M., Mathivha, F.I., & Odiyo, J.O. 2021. Impact of Land Management on Water Resources, a South African Context. Journal of Sustainability,13, 701. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020701 Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality (NMBM). 2010. Water and Sanitation Services By-law. Provincial Gazette Extraordinary No 2361, p160-209. 14 May 2010. Odiyo, J. & Makungo, R. 2012. Water quality problems and management in rural areas of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Journal of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 164, 35- 46. https://doi.org/10.2495/WP120121 Pearce, K., Snyman, H., van Heerden, H., Greben, H., & Oellermann, R.A. 1995. Bioremediation technology for the treatment of contaminated soil in South Africa. Water Research Commission, Private Bag X03, Gezina, 0031. Pi, L., Xie, X., Ma, T., Su, C., Li, J., & Wang, Y. 2020. Arsenic immobilization by in-situ iron coating for managed aquifer rehabilitation. Journal of Water Research, 181, 115859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115859 Pienaar, H., Xu, Y., Braune, E., Cao, J., Dzikiti, S., Jovanovic, N.Z. 2021. Implementation of groundwater protection measures, particularly resource directed measures in South Africa. Water Policy. Polasi, T., Matinise, S., & Oelofse, S. 2020. South African Municipal Waste Management Systems: Challenges and Solutions. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC. 2-110 Ryokuchikoen, Tsurumi Ward, Osaka, 538- 0036, Japan. Practices in Johannesburg City Townships. 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Materials Processing and Manufacturing (SMPM 2019). Procedia Manufacturing, 35, 1025-1031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.052 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 51 Rasmeni, Z.Z., & Madyira, D.M. 2019. A Review of the Current Municipal Solid Waste Management Remediation at NPL Sites. EPA 542-R-18-002, https://www.epa.gov/remedytech (Accessed 07 November 2022) Smith, M., Cross, K., Paden, M., & Laban, P. (eds.) 2016. Spring-Managing groundwater sustainably. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2016.WANI.8.en Sophocleous, M. (2002). Interactions between groundwater and surface water: the state of the science. Hydrogeology journal, 10(1), 52-67. Talabi, A.O. & Kayode, T.J. 2019. Groundwater Pollution and Remediation. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 11, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2019.111001 Tóth, J. (1970). A conceptual model of the groundwater regime and the hydrogeologic environment. Journal of Hydrology, 10(2), 164-176. Vasanthi, P., Kaliappan, S., & Srinivasaraghavan, R. 2007. Impact of poor solid waste management on ground water. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 143(1-3), 227-238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9971-0 UNESCO. 2022. United Nations World Water Development Report 2022: groundwater: making the invisible visible. https://www.unesco.org/reports/wwdr/2022/en/groundwater-and-industry (Accessed 03 November 2022). United States- Department of Energy (US-DOE). 1998. Feasibility Study for Remedial Action for the Groundwater Operable Units at the Chemical Plant Area and the Ordnance Works Area at the Weldon Spring Site, Weldon Spring, Missouri. Forrestal Building 1000 Independence Avenue Southwest, Washington, D.C., U.S. Wamsley, R.D., and Mazury, D. 1999. A management plan for the Blesbokspruit Ramsar site. Volume 2: Objectives and Management plan. University of Pretoria: Pretoria. Winter, T.C., Harvey, J.W., Franke, O.L. & Alley, W.M. 1998. Ground water and surface water: a single resource (Vol. 1139). Diane Publishing. Water Research Commission. 2019. Urban Groundwater Development and Management. Report compiled by Delta-H Water Systems Modelling (Pty) Ltd. WRC Report No. 2741/1/19. Zhang, H., Xu, Y., & Kanyerere, T. 2020. A review of the managed aquifer recharge: Historical development, current situation, and perspectives. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 118-119, 102887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2020.10288 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0422 52 APPENDICES APPENDIX A: --- Document Separator --- Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 i Published by The Department of Water and Sanitation Private Bag X313 Pretoria, 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: (012) 336 7500/ +27 12 336 7500 Fax: (012) 336 6731/ +27 12 336 6731 Copyright Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner without full acknowledgment of the source. This report should be cited as: Department of Water and Sanitation, 2025. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice. Report 3.1. Sources Directed Studies. Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425. Pretoria, South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 ii DOCUMENT INDEX REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR WATER RESOURCES REPORT SERIES REPORT TITLE DWS REPORT NUMBER 1. Project Planning Reports 1.1 Project Plan RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0120 1.2 Gap Analysis Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0220 1.3 Framework Document RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDC/0121 1.4 ToR for PSC members RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0221 1.5 Inception Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0321 1.6 Situation Assessment Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0421 2. Development of Rehabilitation Management Guidelines 2.1 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Rivers RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0124 2.2 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Wetlands RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0224 2.3 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Estuaries RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0124 2.4 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Lakes and Dams RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0324 2.5 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines for Groundwater resources RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0224 3. Implementation Guidelines Report 3.1 Guidelines in Practice RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 4. Project Administration Reports 4.1 Project Close-out Report RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0525 4.1.1 Capacity Building 4.1.2 Stakeholder Engagement Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 iii DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL Authors: Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane, Dr Mmaphefo Thwala, Mr Samkele Mnyango, Ms Difela Kalembo, Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Contributors: Sub-Technical Task Team, Technical Task Team, Project Management Committee, and Project Steering Committee Project Name: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice Report No: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 Report Version: Version 1.8 Date: August 2025 _________________________________________________________________________________ Department of Water and Sanitation Chief Directorate: Water Ecosystems Management Compiled by: ..................................................... Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane (Project Manager) Approved for DWS by: .................................................... Director: Sources Directed Studies Ms Tovhowani Nyamande (Project Leader) .................................................... Chief Director: Water Ecosystems Management Ms Ndileka Mohapi Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DWS Project Administration Committee (PAC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager DWS Sub- Technical Task Team (Sub-TT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Dr Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: North West Provincial Office Member Ms Difela Kalembo Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Provincial Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Dr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member DWS Technical Task Team (TTT) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Sources Directed Studies Project Leader Dr Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: North West Provincial Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 v Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Difela Kalembo Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Provincial Office Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Provincial Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Provincial Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Provincial Office Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination- Surface Water Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Dr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member DWS Project Management Committee (PMC) Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Chairperson Dr Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Difela Kalembo Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Provincial Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: North West Provincial Office Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 vi Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Provincial Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Provincial Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Dr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Ms Naomi Fourie Scientific Manager: Compliance Monitoring - Afforestation Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination-Surface Water Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management – Western Cape Provincial Office Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In-Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager – Kwazulu Natal Provincial Office Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Integrated Water Resource Management Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 vii Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Dr Christa Thirion Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Joseph Phasha Control Engineering Technician Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Project Steering Committee Members (PSC) DWS Representatives Ms Tovhowani Nyamande Director: Source Directed Studies Chairperson Dr Mmaphefo Thwala Scientific Manager: Source Directed Studies Project Manager (former) Mr Kgotso Mahlahlane Production Scientist: Sources Directed Studies Project Manager Mr Samkele Mnyango Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Difela Kalembo Production Scientist: Source Directed Studies Member Ms Barbara Weston Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Kwazikwakhe Majola Scientific Manager: Reserve Determination Member Mr Yakeen Atwaru Director: Reserve Determination Member Ms Adaora Okonkwo Scientific Manager: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Nolusindiso Jafta Deputy Director: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Lebogang Matlala Director: Water Resource Classification Member Ms Anet Muir Director: Bulk Potable Water Pricing Regulation Member Ms Abashoni Nefale Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring - Irrigation Member Ms Dephney Kabini Planning and Information – Free State Provincial Office Member Ms Rachel Mpe Production Scientist: North West Provincial Office Member Mr Stanford Macevele Institutional Establishment – Mpumalanga Provincial Office Member Ms Jeanette Nyama Institutional Establishment – Gauteng Provincial Office Member Ms Nombuyiselo Mgca Institutional Establishment – Eastern Cape Member Ms Khumbuzile Moyo Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Ms Thivhafuni Nemataheni Scientific Manager: Water Use Efficiency Member Dr Lindelani Lalumbe Production Scientist: Surface and Groundwater Information Member Ms Lusanda Agbasi Deputy Director: Sanitation Services Support Member Mr Molefi Mazibuko Production Scientist: Reserve Determination Member Ms Mahadi Mofokeng Deputy Director: Strategy Coordination Member Mr Musawenkosi Kunene Production Scientist: Strategy – Disaster Management Member Mr Elijah Mogakabe Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Sazi Mthembu Production Scientist: Resource Quality Information Services Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 viii Mr Washington Tunha Chief Engineer: Implementation Support – Micro Planning Member Mr William Mosefowa Deputy Director: Resource Protection and Waste Member Dr Stanley Nzama Production Scientist: Reserve Determination - Groundwater Member Ms Joyce Machaba Production Scientist: Reserve Determination-Surface Water Member Mr Fanus Fourie Scientific Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Ms Esther Lekalake Production Scientist: Water Resource Classification Member Mr Pieter Viljoen Scientist Manager: Water Resource Planning Systems Member Dr Wietsche Roets Specialist Scientist: Water Abstraction and In-Stream Use Member Mr Pieter Ackerman Landscape Architect: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Dikeledi Baloyi Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Resource Protection and Waste Member Mr Rendani Ndou Control Environmental Officer: Resource Protection and Waste Member Ms Lumka Kuse Production Scientist: Water Abstraction and In- Stream Use Member Ms Morongwa Seko Deputy Director: Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement Member Dr Mampolelo Photolo Resource Quality Information Services Member Dr Christa Thirion Scientific Manager: Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Isaac Ramukhuba Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Michael Munzhelele Environmental Officer Specialised Production: Water Use Licensing Member Mr Siyabonga Buthelezi Scientific Manager: Kwazulu Natal Provincial Office Member Ms Lerato Mokhoantle Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Jaco Roelofse Northern Cape Provincial Office Member Ms Shaddai Daniel Water Resource Management: Western Cape Provincial Office Member Ms Melissa Lintnaar-Strauss Scientist Manager: Western Cape Provincial Office Member Mr Sibusiso Majola Resource Quality Information Services Member Mr Tendamudzimu Rasikhanya Director: Institutional Establishment: Northern Cape Member Water Sector Representatives Dr Andrew Wood Principal Scientist: SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd Member Mr Lehlohonolo Phadima General Manager: Scientific Services: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Ms Thembisa Torch Assistant Director: DWS: Berg-Olifants Proto-CMA Member Dr Eddie Riddell Water Resources Manager: South African National Parks Member Mr Ntsikelelo Wiseman Dlulane Acting Chief Executive Officer: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Phil McLean Task Manager: Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 ix Planning, Pollution and Chemicals Directorate Mr Stanley Tshitwamulomoni Director: Water Sources and Wetlands Conservation Member Dr Dhiraj Rama Executive Director: Association of Cementitious Material Producers (ACMP) Member Mr Kobus Fell Advisor: National Water Monitor Non-Profit Company Member Ms Thembela Bushula Freshwater Ecologist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Donovan Gillman President: Institute for Landscape Architecture in South Africa Member Mr Reginald Mabalane Policy Analyst: Mineral Council of South Africa Member Ms Busisiwe Mahlangu Control Environmental Officer: Inkomati-Usuthu Catchment Management Agency Member Mr Sihle Ximba Acting Water Care Manager: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Member Mr Bonani Madikizela Research Manager: Water Research Commission Member Ms Elkerine Rossouw Water Use Specialist: Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Agency Member Ms Hermien Oberholzer Senior Principal Engineer: Anglo American Platinum Member Ms Stephinah Mudau Head Environment: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Mr Matome Makwela Senior Policy Analyst: Minerals Council of South Africa Member Ms Jenifer Zungu Project Leader: South African National Biodiversity Institute Member Mr Douglas Macfarlane Chief Scientist: Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services Member Mr Andre Beegte Implementation Manager – Wetlands: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Debbie Muir Biodiversity Officer Control: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment Member Ms Kate Snaddon Senior Consultant: Freshwater Consulting Member Dr Yolandi Schoeman Postdoctoral Scientist and Ecological Engineer: University of the Free State Member Dr Chantel Petersen Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Dr Vhahangwele Masindi Research and Development Manager: Magalies Water Member Ms Kim Hodgson Scientist – Water Quality Management: Umgeni Water Member Ms Lilian Siwelane Control Environmental Officer: DWS: North West Institutional Management Member Mr Mashudu Rafundisani Senior Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Mpho Zwane Senior Specialist - Water Quality Management: City of Johannesburg Municipality Member Ms Esmeralda Ramburran Deputy Director - Operational Support and Planning: Department of Forestry Fisheries and the Environment Member Mr Norman Nokeri Manager - Strategy and Planning: Lepelle Northern Water Member Mr Pule Makena Specialist - Catchment Management: City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Member Mr Reveck Hariram Senior Water Quality Advisor: Rand Water Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 x Mr Theolin Naidoo Senior Scientist: Institute of Natural Resources NPC Member Mr Wiseman Ndlala Senior Specialist - Water Quality and Catchment Management: City of Johannesburg Member Mr Roger Bills Senior Curator: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) Member Mr Fazel Sheriff Chief Engineer: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Mr Themba Dladla Provincial Programme Manager: Municipal Infrastructure Support Agent Member Dr Kobus Du Plessis Managing Director: Envirokonsult Scientific Services (Pty) Ltd Member Ms Mulalo Sundani Environmental Impact Management: Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) Member Dr Elizabeth Day Director: Liz Day Consulting (Pty) Ltd Member Dr Heidi van Deventer Principal Researcher: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Member Mr Lubabalo Luyaba Specialist – Water and Sanitation: South African Local Government Association Member Mr Vhangani Silima Coordinator Environmental Rehabilitation: Rand Water Member Ms Phumelele Sokhulu Environmental Officer: Umgeni Member Mr Robert Siebritz Senior Professional Officer: City of Cape Town Member Mr Eddy Tshabalala Control Environmental Officer: Sedibeng District Municipality Member Mr Rodney February MEL Coordinator: World Wide Fund for Nature Member Mr Ruwen Pillay Control Environmental Officer: Estuaries Management: DFFE Member Ms Yolokazi Galada Control Environmental Officer: DFFE Member Mr Stephen Midzi Manager: Biodiversity Conservation SANParks Member Dr Thakane Ntholi Manager: Water and Environment: Council for Geoscience Member Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AIS AIP AMD AR ARC C.A.P.E CARA CBD CFR CMAs CMFs CMS CPLUS CSA CSIR DALRRD DEA DEA&DP DEDEAT DFFE DMRE DWS ECF ECPTA EFZ EI EIA EIP EMP EMPr EPWP ERS EWR EWRP EWT FEN FEPAs FHI GBF GEF GWW HDRP HGM HiPRO IAPs IWQMS IWRM KNP MAR MDTP M & E Alien and Invasive Species Alien and Invasive Plants Acid Mine Drainage Artificial Recharge Agricultural Research Council Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act 43 of 1983 Convention on Biodiversity Cape Floristic Region Catchment Management Agencies Catchment Management Forums Catchment Management Strategy Climate Positive Use Strategy Conservation South Africa Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development Department of Environmental Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment Department of Mineral Resources and Energy Department of Water and Sanitation eThekwini Conservancies Forum Eastern Cape Parks and Tourism Agency Estuarine Functional Zone Ecological infrastructure Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Implementation Plan Environmental Management Plan Environmental Management Programme Expanded Public Works Programme Environmental and Rural Solutions Ecological Water Requirements eMalahleni Water Reclamation Plant Endangered Wildlife Trust Freshwater Ecosystem Network Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas Freshwater Health Index Global Biodiversity Framework Global Environmental Facility Global Wetland Watch Hartbeespoort Dam Integrated Biological Remediation Programme Hydrogeomorphic classification system High Recovery Precipitating Reverse Osmosis Invasive Alien Plants Integrated Water Quality Management Integrated Water Resource Management Kruger National Park Managed Aquifer Recharge Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project Monitoring and Evaluation MMP Maintenance Management Plan Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xii MPA MPRDA MSA NBA NBF NBSAP NCS n.d. NDP Marine Protected Area Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002 Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000 National Biodiversity Assessment National Biodiversity Framework National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Natural Climate Solutions Not dated National Development Plan NECSA NEPAD NFEPAs NGOs NPAES NEMA NEM: BA NEM: PAA NEM: WA Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa New Partnership for Africa’s Development National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas Non-Governmental Organisations National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003 National Environmental Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008 NRM NWA Natural Resource Management National Water Act 36 of 1998 NWMF NWP NWMS NWRS National Wetland Management Framework National Wetland Policy National Waste Management Strategy National Water Resource Strategy NW&SMP National Water and Sanitation Master Plan PNE RMGs SADC SAIAB SAHRA SANBI SANCO SANParks SAWS SER SWC SWSAs Protected Natural Environment Rehabilitation Management Guidelines Southern African Development Community South African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity South African Heritage Resources Agency South African National Biodiversity Institute South African National Civic Organisation South African National Parks South African Wetland Society Society of Ecological Restoration Sustaining the Wild Coast Strategic Water Sources Areas SDGs SDS SPLUMA TNC VRESAP UCP UEIP UN UNCCD UNDP UNEP UNESCO UNFCCC UWC WCETT WCT WDCS WESSA WfW WfWet Sustainable Development Goals Sources Directed Studies Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act 16 of 2013 The Nature Conservancy Vaal River Eastern Sub-system Augmentation Project Umzimvubu Catchment Partnership uMngeni Ecological Infrastructure Partnership United Nation United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change University of Western Cape Western Cape Estuaries Task Team Wildlands Conservation Trust Waste Discharge Charge System Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa Working for Water Working for Wetlands Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xiii WRC Water Research Commission WSA WTG WULs WWF Water Services Act 108 of 1997 Wetland Task Group Water Use Licences Worldwide Fund for Nature WWTWs Wastewater Treatment Works Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xiv GLOSSARY OF TERMS An aquifer is a geological formation which has structures or textures that hold water or permit appreciable water movement through them. Aquifer state means a state in whose territory any part of a transboundary aquifer or aquifer system is situated. Artificial wetlands also known as constructed wetlands are engineered systems designed to utilise natural processes involving wetland vegetation, soils, and their associated microbial assemblages to treat contaminated water or to enhance ecology, ecological class, aesthetics, recreation, land use, land value or landscape design. These are tailored to meet specific regulatory and site-specific requirements and can be designed in several configurations depending on the treatment or other goals. Catchment in relation to a watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, is defined as the geographical area from which any rainfall will drain into the watercourse or watercourses or part of a watercourse, through surface flow to a common point or common points. This land area from which a river or reservoir is fed is also known as a drainage region, basin, or watershed. Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) are institutions to which the Minister acting through the Department of Water and Sanitation delegates water resource management to the regional or catchment level. The CMAs have governing boards, which are appointed by the Minister. These boards represent all stakeholders (including current and potential user groups) and their interests in the Water Management Areas (WMAs) (also refer to the definition of WMAs). Catchment Management Area is an area established as a management unit in the National Water Resource Strategy within which a catchment management agency will conduct the Protection, Use, Development, Conservation, Management and Control of water resources. The Catchment Management Strategy sets principles for allocating water to existing and new water users. It provides the framework for managing water resources within the water management area to ensure that water resources in the water management area are protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled. Freshwater ecosystems refer to all inland water bodies, whether fresh or saline, including rivers, lakes, wetlands, sub-surface waters and estuaries. The Estuary Functional Zone (EFZ) is an area that not only covers the estuary water body but also areas that support physical and biological processes and habitats necessary for estuarine function and condition. The latter includes areas influenced by long-term estuarine sedimentary processes (i.e., sediment stored or eroded during floods), changes in channel configuration, aeolian transport processes, and changes due to coastal storms. The EFZ also encompasses floodplain ecotones and estuarine vegetation (salt marshes, mangroves etc.) that contribute detritus to the base of the estuarine food chain and provides refuge to estuarine biota during high flow events from strong currents. Groundwater is water found in the subsurface in the saturated zone below the water table or contained in an aquifer (also refer to the definition of an aquifer). Ecological Infrastructure (EI) refers to naturally functioning ecosystems that generate or deliver valuable services to people and the economy. It complements built or hard infrastructure and is just as important for providing services and underpinning development, and provides services such as fresh water, climate regulation, soil formation and disaster risk reduction Ecological Water Requirements (EWRs) are the flow patterns (magnitude, timing, and duration) and water quality needed to maintain a riverine ecosystem in a particular condition. This term is used to refer to both the quantity and quality components. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xv Effluent is the municipal sewage or industrial wastewater (untreated, partially treated, or fully treated) that flows out of a wastewater treatment works, septic system, pipe, etc. Eutrophic is a state of an aquatic ecosystem rich in minerals and nutrients, very productive in terms of aquatic plant life and exhibiting increasing signs of water quality problems. Eutrophication (from the Greek “eutrophos” meaning "well-nourished") is the process of over- enrichment of waterbodies with minerals and nutrients, which (at the right temperatures, substrate availability, flow velocity and light penetration) increasingly induce primary production, e.g., algal and macrophyte growth. Eutrophication can be regarded as either a natural aging process in waterbodies or an aging process that can be accelerated by anthropogenic activities. Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to enable urgent and transformative action by Governments, and subnational and local authorities, with the involvement of all of society, to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, to achieve the outcomes it sets out in its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets (i.e., GBF Goal A target 2 for restoration of ecosystems). Although the DWS focuses on the reporting on the SDG targets, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should use the outputs of the current RMGs for their reporting at the respective platforms. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a process for co-ordinated planning and management of water, land, and environmental resources. IWRM considers the amount of available water (surface and groundwater), water use, water quality, environmental and social issues as an integrated (combined) whole to ensure sustainable, equitable and efficient use. Artificial Recharge or Managed Aquifer Recharge ‘artificial’ does not capture the process of humans enhancing natural recharge in a systematic manner. These deficiencies in the term “Artificial Recharge” have been overcome by the now generally accepted term “Managed Aquifer Recharge” which is a practice of increasing the amount of water that enters an aquifer through human-controlled means. Mean annual runoff is the average volume of water that flows in a river per year (annum), expressed as cubic meters per annum. Monitoring refers to periodic or continuous surveillance or testing to determine the level of compliance with statutory requirements and/or pollutant levels in various media or in humans, plants, and animals. National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPAs) form part of a comprehensive approach to sustainable and equitable development of South Africa’s scarce water resources. For integrated water resources planning, NFEPA provides guidance on how many rivers, wetlands and estuaries, and which ones, should remain in a natural or near-natural condition to support the water resource protection goals of the National Water Act. Rehabilitation is the process of improvement or restoring impacted areas or resources to resemble the closest achievable approximation of its pre-impact state. Resources Directed Measures (RDM) are a set of guidelines for water resources (it focuses on quantity and quality) regarding it as an ecosystem rather than a commodity. RDMs comprise Classes, Reserve and RQOs as components. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xvi Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) are a numerical or descriptive (narrative) statement of the conditions which should be met in the receiving water resource, in terms of resource quality, to ensure that the water resource is protected. They might describe, amongst others, the quantity, pattern, and timing of instream flow; water quality; the character and condition of riparian habitat, and the characteristics and condition of the aquatic biota. Resource Water Quality Objective (RWQOs) are the water quality component of the Resource Quality Objective. These are numeric and/or descriptive objectives, which address the physical, chemical, and/or microbiological properties of waterbodies that should be met in receiving water resources to ensure that the water quality requirements of the recognised water users and the aquatic ecosystem are sufficiently protected. Resource Water Quality Objectives are not gazetted, per se. Runoff is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. Surface runoff replenishes groundwater and surface water resources as it percolates through soil profiles or moves into streams and rivers. Source in water resource management, “source” refers to the source of an impact, usually on a water resource. The relationship between “Source” and “Resource” is similar to the relationships between “Cause” and “Effect” or “Aspect” and “Impact,” as per the ISO 14001 definitions. The “Resource” or the “water resource” is part of the receiving environment. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are aimed ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. Every year, an annual SDG Progress Report should be produced based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) are formally defined as natural source areas for water that supply disproportionately large volumes of water per unit area and that are considered of strategic significance for water security from a national planning perspective. Water from SWSAs feeds major dams and can be considered ecological infrastructure that works hand in hand with built infrastructure for delivering water. Trophic status refers to the degree of nutrient enrichment of surface water resources and the associated amount of primary productivity that can be sustained. Wastewater is any water used from domestic, industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, which may contain physical, chemical, and biological pollutants. Water quality refers to the biological, chemical, and physical conditions of a waterbody. It is a measure of a waterbody's ability to support beneficial water use. Weirs, also known as low-head dams, are small overflow-type dams commonly used to raise the level of a river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir, although some weirs have sluice gates, which release water at a level below the top of the weir. Water Management Areas (WMAs) are areas established as management units in the national water resource strategy within which a catchment management agency will conduct the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of water resources. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xvii TABLE OF CONTENTS DOCUMENT INDEX ........................................................................................................................................... II DEPARTMENTAL APPROVAL ...........................................................................................................................III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... XI GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................................................... XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................... XVII LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................... XIX LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................. XX EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. XXI 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PURPOSE OF REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES IN PRACTICE ................................................ 2 1.3 INTENDED USERS OF THE REPORT ........................................................................................................... 2 1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT.................................................................................................................. 2 2. ALIGNMENT WITH BROADER OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... 3 2.1 INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS ............................................................................................................. 3 2.1.1 Sustainable Development Goals ................................................................................................................... 3 2.1.2 Global Biodiversity Framework ..................................................................................................................... 3 2.1.3 Convention on Biological Biodiversity........................................................................................................... 4 2.1.4 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ........................................................................ 4 2.1.5 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification ................................................................................ 5 2.1.6 Ramsar Convention ....................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1.7 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation ................................................................ 6 2.2 EXECUTIVE PLANS AND FRAMEWORKS ................................................................................................. 7 2.2.1 National Development Plan .......................................................................................................................... 7 2.2.5 Draft National Wetland Policy ...................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.6 National Wetland Management Framework ................................................................................................ 9 2.2.7 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan .......................................................................................... 10 2.2.8 National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas ........................................................................................... 10 2.2.9 National Biodiversity Assessment ............................................................................................................... 11 2.2.10 National Groundwater Strategy ............................................................................................................. 11 3. REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES IN PRACTICE .................................................................. 12 3.1 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................... 12 3.2 RELEVANT AUTHORITIES AND THEIR ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES ..................................................................................................................................... 12 3.3 INITIATIVES ............................................................................................................................................. 18 3.3.1 Rivers .......................................................................................................................................................... 18 3.3.2 Wetlands ..................................................................................................................................................... 33 3.3.3 Estuaries ..................................................................................................................................................... 42 3.3.4 Lakes and Dams .......................................................................................................................................... 59 3.3.5 Groundwater .............................................................................................................................................. 69 4. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 78 5. WAY FORWARD ......................................................................................................................................... 80 REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 81 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xviii ANNEXURES ................................................................................................................................................... 85 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Overview of the different phases involved in the project development of the NWP .......... 9 Figure 2: Examples of Mooiplaats Campus constructed wetlands ..................................................... 85 Figure 3: Constructed wetland weirs, stream canalisation and stream rehabilitation in a stream .. 87 Figure 4: Lakenvlei wetland rehabilitation via ecologically engineered methods like rock weirs and dongalocks courtesy of Birdlife Africa ................................................................................................. 88 Figure 5: Zaalklapspruit ecological engineered wetland implemented by the University of the Free State (UFS) to treat AMD ..................................................................................................................... 89 Figure 6: Floating wetlands concepts and materials ........................................................................... 90 Figure 7: Locality map of the Eerste River Estuary .............................................................................. 93 Figure 8: Locality map of the Hout Bay River Estuary ......................................................................... 93 Figure 9: Locality map of the Lourens River Estuary ........................................................................... 94 Figure 10: Locality map of the Silvermine River Estuary .................................................................... 94 Figure 11: Locality map of the Sir Lowry’s River Estuary .................................................................... 95 Figure 12: Locality map of the Zeekoevlei River Estuary .................................................................... 95 Figure 13: Locality map of the Diep River Estuary comprising of Rietvlei and the Milnerton Lagoon .............................................................................................................................................................. 96 Figure 14 Locality map of the Diep Zandvlei Estuary compromising the channel, vlei, marina and wetland ................................................................................................................................................. 97 Figure 15: Floating booms [(Clockwise, from top left (1 to 6) implemented at Hartbeespoort Dam, including other technologies used for rehabilitation of eutrophication] .......................................... 98 Figure 16: Thukela River abstraction works in Middledrift, Madungela where Vortex Settling Basin (VSB) demonstration is applied ........................................................................................................... 99 Figure 17: Kharkams Recharge Scheme layout with sand filter – river sand is sieved for the filter . 99 Figure 18: Borehole injection testing at Langebaan Road Aquifer ................................................... 100 Figure 19: Schematic diagram of the existing water supply arrangements for greater Plettenberg Bay ............................................................................................................................................................ 101 Figure 20: Atlantis Managed Aquifer Recharge Scheme ................................................................... 101 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xx LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Articles 6 and 12 of the Law on Transboundary Aquifers ....................................................... 6 Table 2: Roles and responsibilities of regulating authorities in rehabilitation management of water resources .............................................................................................................................................. 13 Table 3: River rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. .............................................. 20 Table 4: Wetland rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. ........................................ 34 Table 5: Estuaries rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. ....................................... 44 Table 6: Lakes and Dams rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. ............................ 61 Table 7: Groundwater rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. ................................ 70 Table 8: Examples and Applications of Artificial and/or Constructed Wetlands ............................... 87 Table 9: Results for Freshwater Health Index Indicators .................................................................... 92 Table 10: An example of a data-gathering template. ....................................................................... 102 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 xxi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Healthy freshwater ecosystems provide humans with critical ecosystem services and bolster resilience against the impacts of climate change. However, when these ecosystems are degraded, biodiversity is reduced, ecological functions are impaired, and critical ecosystem services are compromised, increasing vulnerability to climate change. In South Africa, freshwater ecosystem degradation is prevalent due to declining water quality caused by rising pollution from various industries, including inadequate sewage treatment. The ever-increasing population, industrialisation, urbanisation, over- utilisation of natural resources, land degradation and climate change are amongst other impacts associated with the deterioration of freshwater ecosystems. In response to the degradation of freshwater ecosystems caused by, amongst others, altered flows, alien and invasive plants (AIP) and animal species, wetland draining and pollution leading to degraded freshwater rivers, riparian and wetland ecosystems, the Rehabilitation 1 Management Guidelines (RMGs) for Water Resources were developed to address the impacts associated with water resource quality degradation to ensure the maintenance of healthy water ecosystems. The RMGs for water resources were developed based on their interactions with characteristics of watercourses, namely, hydrology (surface flow and interflow), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, biota, and groundwater flow. These guidelines followed a phased approach encompassing diagnostic, planning and assessment, rehabilitation objective setting, execution, monitoring, evaluation and reporting. The RMGs were also aimed at integrating, aligning, and harmonising rehabilitation work across various disciplines and institutions. Thus, the current RMGs in Practice Report is underpinned by the RMGs developed for water resources (i.e., rivers, wetlands, estuaries, lakes and dams as well as groundwater). This report aims to demonstrate the practical application of RMGs by showcasing rehabilitation initiatives , ongoing or completed at the catchment level. It highlights efforts by various authorities and organisations and assesses their real -world effectiveness. 1 Rehabilitation is the process of improvement or restoring impacted areas or resources to resemble the closest achievable approximation to natural conditions. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND The freshwater ecosystems of South Africa are remarkably diverse, encompassing all inland water bodies, fresh or saline. This includes rivers, wetlands, estuaries, lakes, dams, and groundwater. Healthy rivers, wetlands, and groundwater systems maintain water supply and buffer the effects of storm events, reducing the loss of life and damage to property due to floods. Riverbanks with natural vegetation trap sediments, stabilise riverbanks and break down pollutants draining from the surrounding land (WRC, 2011). On the other hand, estuaries provide nursery areas for marine and estuarine animals, and supply fresh water and nutrients to the sea, which drive marine food webs and maintain important fisheries (Lamberth et al., 2009). Concerningly, global trends indicate high levels of threat to freshwater ecosystems. The National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) revealed that more than half of South African rivers, wetlands and estuary ecosystem types are threatened (SANBI, 2019). These threats arise from water demand that outstrips supply, and declining water quality due to increased pollution from industries, urban expansion, mining, power generation, agriculture, forestry, and inadequate sewage treatment. The Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS), the custodian of water resources in South Africa is mandated in terms of Chapter 3 of the National Water Act (NWA) (Act 36 of 1998) to ensure the protection, use, conservation, and management of water resources in an efficient, sustainable, and equitable manner. The development and use of water resources (and ecosystems within them) must not exceed the threshold beyond which their integrity is jeopardised. The sensitive and vulnerable water resources require specific attention in management and planning procedures, especially when subjected to significant human use and development pressures. To realise and achieve the above-mentioned goals of the NWA, the Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs) were developed to give effect to broader DWS strategic objectives and actions contained in the National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP) that requires protection and maintenance of existing freshwater ecosystem priority areas to ensure that they are in good functional condition by managing riparian zones, wetland buffers, critical groundwater recharge areas and carrying out rehabilitation of strategic water ecosystems such as rivers, wetlands, estuaries, lakes, dams, and groundwater resources. The RMGs for water resources are an in-house project initiated by the DWS in 2020 to address the impacts associated with water resource quality degradation to ensure the maintenance of healthy water ecosystems. The project drew from existing rehabilitation work completed to date in South Africa. The major focus of the developed RMGs was to integrate, align, and harmonise efforts across different projects, programmes, and initiatives given the separate mandates and various institutions responsible for rehabilitation work. The RMGs for water resources were developed in terms of their interactions with characteristics of watercourses, namely, hydrology (surface flow and interflow), geomorphology, water quality, habitat, biota, and groundwater flows. This was achieved through a phased approach including, diagnostic, planning and assessment, setting of the rehabilitation objectives, execution, monitoring, evaluation and reporting phases. In addition, the following aspects were covered under each characteristic of the watercourse: • Description of the specific characteristics of watercourses; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 2 • Types of impacts for each characteristic of the watercourse – a brief overview and description of the impacts that give rise to the degradation of the watercourses to better understand the problem and subsequently develop effective rehabilitation guidelines; • Legal considerations – applicable legislation to be considered for undertaking site-specific rehabilitation activities on a particular characteristic of a watercourse; and • Step-by-step guidelines on rehabilitation measures/interventions for executing rehabilitation planning, design, implementation, and monitoring. 1.2 PURPOSE OF REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES IN PRACTICE The current RMGs in Practice report is the culmination of the developed RMGs for water resources, which include, Rivers (Volume 1), Wetlands (Volume 2), Estuaries (Volume 3), Lakes and Dams (Volume 4) and Groundwater (Volume 5) and is aimed at serving as a valuable tool to demonstrate to intended users how the guidelines can be applied in real-world situations. Thus, the RMGs in Practice report serves as a guide by presenting a comprehensive account of rehabilitation initiatives, either ongoing or completed undertaken by various authorities, organisations, institutions and demonstrating their applicability in real-world situations. 1.3 INTENDED USERS OF THE REPORT The RMGs in Practice Report, underpinned by the developed RMGs for water resources, serves as a valuable guide for various stakeholders involved in water resource management, including Government Departments (National, Provincial, and Local), Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs), sectoral institutions such as higher education institutions, civil society members, non- governmental organisations, private sector entities (including agriculture, industries, and mining) and all other interested and affected parties involved in the water sector. This report aims to clarify how the RMGs can be effectively applied ensuring that all stakeholders have the necessary information to implement these guidelines in real-world situations. 1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT The report is divided into five sections as follows: • The opening sections contain the document signatories, document index and status, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of figures, tables, acronyms, and executive summary. • Section 1 provides the background on the development of RMGs for water resources, the purpose of developing the RMGs in Practice report, the intended users of the report and the structure of the report. • Section 2 provides the linkages between the RMGs in Practice and broader objectives. • Section 3 provides a comprehensive account of rehabilitation objectives undertaken by various authorities, organisations, institutions and subsequent application in real-world situations. • Sections 4 and 5 provide a conclusion and a way forward. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 3 2. ALIGNMENT WITH BROADER OBJECTIVES 2.1 INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS 2.1.1 Sustainable Development Goals South Africa is a signatory to various international environmental agreements between member states in a bid to ensure sustainable environmental management. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represent a global partnership and a call to action that is aimed at eradicating poverty, improving health and education, reducing inequality, stimulating economic growth, and tackling climate change challenges. The SDGs were presented for the first time by the United Nations in 2015 and comprise 17 Global Goals aimed to improve the world we live in by 2030. Goals 6 and 15 are particularly pertinent, as they are directly linked to water resource protection and management as follows (Stats SA, 2023; DWS, 2023b): • Goal 6 - ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Target 6.6 explicitly highlights the protection and rehabilitation of water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers, estuaries and lakes. This target acknowledges that conserving pristine wetland ecosystems and rehabilitating degraded wetlands would safeguard current water resources and further enhance the quality and quantity of water available for all if achieved. The target indicators for SDG Target 6.6 are as follows: o Indicator 6.6.1D(1): change in the spatial extent of water-related ecosystems over time, including wetlands, reservoirs, lakes, and estuaries as a percentage of total land area; o Indicator 6.6.1D(2): number of systems affected by high trophic and turbidity states; o Indicator 6.6.1D(3): change in the national discharge of rivers and estuaries over time; and o Indicator 6.6.1A(1): change in the ecological condition of rivers, estuaries, lakes, and wetlands. • Goal 15 - protect, rehabilitate and promote the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and biodiversity loss. The SDGs in general also recognise the need for rehabilitation and management of water-related ecosystems (including wetlands) as a basis for addressing water scarcity and risks, as well as addressing several key challenges related to food security and climate change. 2.1.2 Global Biodiversity Framework Biodiversity is of importance to human well-being, a healthy planet, and economic prosperity for all people, including a balance and harmony with Mother Nature. Humans depend on biodiversity for food, medicine, energy, clean air and water, security from natural disasters, recreation, and cultural inspiration. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) seeks to respond to the Global Assessment Report of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services issued by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. The GBF has 23 action-oriented global targets for urgent action over the decade to 2030, and the most pertinent targets linked directly to water resource protection and management include Targets 2, 6, 8, and 11 as follows (GBF, 2022): • Target 2 - ensure that by 2030, at least 30 per cent of areas of degraded terrestrial, inland water and marine and coastal ecosystems are under effective rehabilitation to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, ecological integrity, and connectivity. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 4 • Targets 6 - eliminate, minimise, reduce, and/or mitigate the impacts of alien and invasive species (AIS) on biodiversity and ecosystem services by identifying and managing: o pathways of the introduction of alien species; o preventing the introduction and establishment of priority AIS o reducing the rates of introduction and establishment of other known or potential AIS by at least 50 per cent by 2030; and o eradicating or controlling AIS, especially in priority sites, such as islands. • Target 8 - minimise the impact of climate change and ocean acidification on biodiversity and increase its resilience through mitigation, adaptation, and disaster risk reduction actions, including through nature-based solutions and/or ecosystem-based approaches, while minimising negative and fostering positive impacts of climate action on biodiversity; and • Target 11 - restore, maintain and enhance nature’s contributions to people, including ecosystem functions and services, such as the regulation of air, water and climate, soil health, pollination and reduction of disease risk, as well as protection from natural hazards and disasters, through nature-based solutions and/or ecosystem-based approaches for the benefit of all people and nature. 2.1.3 Convention on Biological Biodiversity The Convention on Biological Biodiversity (CBD) was first adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and encouraged co-operation between governmental authorities and the private sector in developing methods for sustainable uses of biological resources. The imperatives of the convention can be realised through measures aimed at the conservation and effective management of ecosystems. The three main objectives of the CBD are to conserve biological diversity, to ensure sustainable use of the components of biological diversity and the fair and to ensure equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. The CBD (1992) call on contracting Parties, of which South Africa became a member in 1996, to do the following: • Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems and promote the recovery of threatened species through the development and implementation of plans or other management strategies; • Prevent the introduction of alien species, including the control or eradication of alien species that threaten ecosystems and habitats; and • Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species for their re- introduction into their natural habitats under appropriate conditions. 2.1.4 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent hazardous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The UNFCCC moderates Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) 2 , which is a process that supports countries' efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, foster conservation, sustain the management of forests, and enhance forest carbon stocks. Thus, the Convention of Climate Change (1992) calls on all parties, 2 REDD+ is framework developed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that aims to reduce climate change by protecting forests, promoting conservation, sustainable forest management, and enhancing forest carbon stocks. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 5 considering their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development priorities, objectives, and circumstances, to: • Promote sustainable management, cooperate in the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including biomass, forests, and oceans, as well as other terrestrial, coastal, and marine ecosystems; • Cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change; and • Develop and elaborate appropriate and integrated plans for coastal zone management, water resources and agriculture, as well as the protection and rehabilitation of areas, particularly in Africa, affected by drought and desertification, as well as floods. 2.1.5 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification The objective of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), adopted in Paris in 1994 and came into effect in 1996, is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing severe drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa. This can be achieved through implementing effective action at all levels, supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, contributing to the achievement of sustainable development in affected areas. The UNCCD [not dated (n.d.)] calls on all parties to: • Establish strategies and priorities, within the framework of sustainable development plans and/or policies, to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought; • Involve long-term integrated strategies that focus on improved productivity of land and the rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources, leading to improved living conditions at the community level; and • Develop, in a spirit of partnership, co-operation among all levels of government, communities, non-governmental organisations and landholders to establish a better understanding of the nature and value of land, as well as scarce water resources. 2.1.6 Ramsar Convention The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty whose mission is the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional, and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. Thise convention was developed to call international attention to the rate at which wetland habitats were disappearing, in part due to a lack of understanding of their crucial functions, values, goods and services. The commitments of parties joining the Ramsar Convention (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2016) include the following: • List sites - designate at least one wetland at the time for inclusion in the list of wetlands of international importance (i.e., the Ramsar List) and to promote their conservation; • Wise use - formulate and implement the planning of important wetlands to promote as far as possible their wise use; • Reserve and training - establish nature reserves in wetlands that are internationally important and included in the Ramsar List. This also includes the promotion of training in the fields of wetland research and wetland management; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 6 • International cooperation - consult with other contracting parties on the implementation of the convention, especially regarding transboundary wetlands, shared water systems, and shared species, including the establishment of wetland rehabilitation projects; and • Compliance with the commitments - the Ramsar Convention is not a regulatory regime and has no punitive sanctions for violations of defaulting upon treaty commitments - its terms do, however, constitute a solemn treaty and are binding in international law in that sense. 2.1.7 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation In October 2022, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) identified several key resolutions, including the adoption of a resolution on groundwater by South Africa. South Africa, through its Permanent Delegation to UNESCO and the DWS, led the drafting of a resolution on groundwater, which was tabled at the 215 th Session of the Executive Board. The resolution aimed to raise the international profile of groundwater and its importance, particularly in the context of climate change mitigation strategies. Groundwater resolutions 12(a) and 12(e) are pertinent to groundwater resource protection and management and call upon Member States, international organisations, academic institutions, the donor community, professional organisations and other relevant stakeholders, to (UNESCO, 2022): • Contribute to the development and adoption of measures and initiatives for groundwater studies, aquifer assessment, monitoring and research, data collection and the dissemination of available information at the local, regional and global level, as appropriate; and • Work towards the establishment of improved integrated and sustainable management and governance of local and transboundary groundwater resources, where applicable, to preserve natural resources and achieve the SDGs. Articles 6 and 12 of the Law on Transboundary Aquifers listed in Table 1 below, submitted to the General Assembly as a part of the Commission’s report, promote co-governance mechanisms between countries in the effort to prevent, reduce and control pollution of aquifers. Table 1: Articles 6 and 12 of the Law on Transboundary Aquifers Source: United Nations, 2008 Article Description Article 6: Obligation not to cause significant harm • Aquifer states shall, in utilising transboundary aquifers or aquifer systems in their territories, take all appropriate measures to prevent the causing of significant harm to other aquifer states or other states in whose territory a discharge zone is located. • Aquifer states shall, in undertaking activities other than utilisation of a transboundary aquifer or aquifer system that have, or are likely to have, an impact upon that transboundary aquifer or aquifer system, take all appropriate measures to prevent the causing of significant harm through that aquifer or aquifer system to other aquifer states or other states in whose territory a discharge zone is located. • Where significant harm nevertheless is caused to another aquifer state or a state in whose territory a discharge zone is located, the aquifer state whose activities cause such harm shall take, in consultation with the affected state, all appropriate response measures to eliminate or mitigate such harm, having due regard for the provisions of draft article 4 related to equitable and reasonable utilisation and article 5, which details the factors relevant to equitable and reasonable utilisation. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 7 Article Description Article 12: Prevention, reduction and control of pollution • Aquifer states shall, individually and, where appropriate, jointly, prevent, reduce and control pollution of their transboundary aquifers or aquifer systems, including through the recharge process, that may cause significant harm to other aquifer states. Aquifer states shall take a precautionary approach in view of uncertainty about the nature and extent of a transboundary aquifer or aquifer system and of its vulnerability to pollution. 2.2 EXECUTIVE PLANS AND FRAMEWORKS Various policies, strategies and guidelines that inform the rehabilitation management of water resources in South Africa are detailed in this section. 2.2.1 National Development Plan The National Development Plan (NDP) is a plan for the country to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality by 2030 through uniting South Africans, unleashing the energies of its citizens, growing an inclusive economy, building capabilities, enhancing the capability of the state and leaders working together to solve complex problems. This plan envisions a South Africa where everyone feels free yet bounded to others; where everyone embraces their full potential, and a country where opportunity is determined not by birth, but by ability, education, and hard work. Realising such a society would require a transformation of the economy and focused efforts to build the country's capabilities. To eliminate poverty and reduce inequality, the economy must grow faster and in ways that benefit all South Africans. Chapter 5 of the NDP promotes environmental sustainability and resilience, with Objective 2 prioritising to put in place a regulatory framework for land use, to ensure the conservation and rehabilitation of protected areas (NPC, 2012). 2.2.2 National Water Resource Strategy (Edition 3) The National Water Management Strategy (NWRS) is a statutory strategy, required in terms of the NWA 36 of 1998 and binding on all authorities and institutions implementing the act (DWS, 2023a). The NWRS sets out a strategic direction for water resources management in South Africa with a particular focus on priorities and objectives for the period of 2023 – 2030. It provides the framework to ensure that water resources at a regional or catchment level and within defined water management areas are protected, used, developed, conserved, managed, and controlled sustainably and equitably. It further calls for the development of government policies and strategies for proactive measures to mitigate water resource quality degradation and address legacy deterioration while maintaining healthy water ecosystems (i.e., rivers, wetlands, estuaries, lakes, dams, and groundwater) to ensure their continued provision of ecosystem services. The NWRS (DWS, 2023a) highlights strategic actions that directly address rivers, wetlands, estuaries, and groundwater management and includes the following: • The DWS and CMAs should work with the national and provincial departments of agriculture to ensure the implementation of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (CARA) (43 of 1983) to protect riparian and wetland buffer zones, critical groundwater recharge areas, and estuaries; • Prioritisation of pollution prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of polluted water bodies; • Proactive management and rehabilitation of water resources such as mountain catchments, rivers, wetlands, aquifers, and estuaries; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 8 • Incorporate Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (FEPAs) into planning and decision-making processes that impact aquatic ecosystems; • Strengthening collaboration around managing and conserving water ecosystems between key government departments; and • Support the sustainable use of aquatic ecosystems for sustainable livelihoods in poor rural communities. 2.2.3 National Water and Sanitation Master Plan The National Water and Sanitation Master Plan (NW&SMP) (DWS, 2018a,b) constitutes the roll-out mechanism for the NWRS implementation and specifies, inter alia, priority budget items, scheduled up to 2030 and beyond, for the entire water sector. The NW&SMP prioritises the protection and rehabilitation of ecological infrastructure to maintain water ecosystems. Strategic Objective 5.3 of the NW&SMP requires the protection and maintenance of existing freshwater ecosystem priority areas in good functional condition by managing riparian zones, wetland buffers, and critical groundwater recharge areas and conducting rehabilitation of strategic water ecosystems. The NW&SMP also focuses on maintaining and improving water quality through the implementation of the Waste Discharge Charge System, which is critical to increasing the funding available for the management and rehabilitation of polluted catchments, including the incentivisation for the reduction of pollution. In addition, the NW&SMP priorities for the future implementation of the polluter-pays principle and rehabilitation of water quality impacts, including the acid mine drainage for long-term actions and the need to develop rehabilitation systems. 2.2.4 Integrated Water Quality Management Policy and Strategy The Integrated Water Quality Management (IWQM) Policies and Strategies (DWS, 2016a; 2017; 2023c) were developed to establish the status quo for water quality, its management practices and instruments, the challenges in South Africa and the institutional arrangements. A review of existing policies, strategies, and other relevant documents, both locally and internationally was used to: i) analyse the root cause of the water quality issues; ii) determine the gaps in the IWQM approaches that have been used; iii) understand impacts that emerging trends may have on water quality (e.g., climate change, unconventional gas exploration, amongst others); and iv) look for innovative practices for IWQM. Principle 10 of the IWQM promotes green/ecological infrastructure restoration, including rehabilitation and restoration of degraded catchments. However, the IWQM also note that the costs associated with rehabilitation of degraded water resources, or of emergency responses to pollution incidents can be extremely high. 2.2.5 Draft National Wetland Policy The adoption and implementation of national wetland policies by contracting parties has emerged as a high priority for Ramsar, and much effort has been invested by the Convention to encourage the establishment of such policy frameworks at national and subnational levels. South Africa opted not to develop a stand-alone wetland policy, but to incorporate objectives relating to wetland conservation and wise use into relevant sectoral policies, including those covering the environment, agriculture, biodiversity, and water (Dini and Everard, 2016). The development of the National Wetland Policy (NWP) would entail using the information gathered and priorities identified in the National Wetland Management Framework (NWMF) as a basis for developing clear policy principles that would serve to further guide wetland management actions in South Africa (DFFE, 2021d). During this phase of the development of the NWP, it would be important to further clarify the roles and responsibilities of supporting institutions (DWS, 2021d). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 9 The NWP aims to jointly coordinate the fragmented mandates and approaches for the effective implementation of wetland protection, management, and conservation by three key national government departments, namely the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE), DWS and the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) (DFFE, 2021d). Figure 1 illustrates Phase 2 of the NWP in which a draft policy and implementation plan were developed. Phase 2A involved the review of selected international literature to benchmark and learn from experiences (i.e., to better understand wetland impacts and management challenges to inform policy direction) that provide a sound basis against which to pursue further wetland policy development. At the time the NWMF (2021d) was published, it was reported that the NWP would be gazetted by the year 2023. The NWMF serves as a step towards the development of a joint NWP for South Africa (DFFE, 2021d). Figure 1: Overview of the different phases involved in the project development of the NWP Source: modified after DFFE, 2021c 2.2.6 National Wetland Management Framework The project to develop the NWMF was initiated in September 2020 with the appointment of Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services in partnership with the DWS, DFFE and DALRRD. The development of the NWMF followed a step-by-step approach including a series of national stakeholder consultations for clarification of the scope and purpose of the project (DFFE, 2021c; DFFE, 2021d). The NWMF was developed principally to strengthen alignment and coordination at a national level as a basis for stimulating and guiding wetland management actions (DFFE, 2021d). The purpose of the NWMF is to provide guidance and assistance with the conservation, preservation, and management of wetlands at a national level for implementation at provincial and local levels (DFFE, 2021d). The vision and mission of the NWMF is to ensure that wetlands in South Africa are recognised, prioritised, Phase 2: Policy and Implementation Plan Development Phase 2(a): 2020/21 Literature Review and Analysis -Reviewandanlysisofexistinginstruments. -Analysisofwetlandimpactsandmanagement challenges. -DevelopaNWMFtowardsinformationofa NWPanddetailedImplementationPlan. Phase 2(b): 2021/22 Literature Review and Analysis -Initiateimplementationandfurtherdevelopthe StrategicActionPlan. -Reviewandupdateexistingpolicytodevelopa gazettereadypolicy[(usingdraftDWSWetland PolicyandinputsfromPhase2(a)]. -Undertakeimplicationsassessments(Legal, Financial,Institutional)inlinewithDepartment ofPlanning,MonitoringandEvaluation requirementsforpolicydevelopment. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 10 adaptively managed, protected, sustainably used, and restored through collaborative efforts between and/or amongst relevant and responsible authorities, organisations, or institutions (DFFE, 2021d). It is foreseen that the progress in implementing the NWMF will be monitored and evaluated annually. The NWMF will further be reviewed every three years to reflect on the progress made and lessons learnt and to identify new and emerging issues that need to be addressed (DFFE, 2021d). It is recommended that a National Wetland Committee be established to ensure and monitor the implementation and review of the NWMF (DFFE, 2021d). The following recommendations are made to achieve the aspirations outlined in the NWMF (DFFE, 2021d): • Appropriate capacity and financial commitments to implement key actions identified; • A review of financial requirements should be undertaken by key departments (i.e., DFFE, DWS and DALRRD), and resources should be targeted to support effective implementation; • Designation of wetland champions in each department and the establishment of a National Wetland Management Committee to oversee the implementation of the NWMF. This could be achieved through the reconstitution of the existing Wetland Task Team. Once established, it is suggested that task teams or working groups be established to lead, refine and report back on various priority activities; • The implementation of the NWMF should be championed at a national level, with the intention for lower levels of government to actively support its implementation of the NWMF. For this to be realised, it is anticipated that the national departments would facilitate a process to integrate the strategic framework into plans at regional and local levels; and • Advocacy and outreach activities are necessary to promote the uptake of the NWMF by a broader stakeholder group, which, amongst others, includes Provincial Conservation Agencies, Municipalities, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Business Sectors, Learning and Academic Institutions and Civil Society. 2.2.7 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) was developed for the DFFE and funded by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The NBSAP is a requirement of contracting parties to the CBD. It sets out a strategy and plan for contracting parties to fulfil the objectives of the Convention. It identifies the priorities for biodiversity management in South Africa, aligning these with the priorities and targets in the global agenda, and national development imperatives. Strategic Objective 2.1 of the NBSAP requires the mapping and prioritisation of ecological infrastructure and such prioritisation should guide the planning of investments in ecological infrastructure, such as through the Natural Resource Management (NRM) programmes, and efforts to scale up rehabilitation and maintenance of ecological infrastructure (DEA, 2015). It should also guide efforts to secure ecological infrastructure, such as Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) or important marine ecological infrastructure that are best managed under appropriate legal protection. 2.2.8 National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas South Africa’s freshwater ecosystems are diverse and refer to all inland water bodies, whether fresh or saline, including rivers, lakes, wetlands, sub-surface waters and estuaries. The National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPAs) project was a three-year partnership project between the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Water Research Commission (WRC), DFFE, DWS, Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), South African Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 11 Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) and South African National Parks (SANParks). The project responded to the urgent need to ensure the conservation of some natural examples of the different ecosystems that make up the natural heritage of this country for current and future generations. The project also provided strategic spatial priorities for conserving South Africa’s freshwater ecosystems and supporting the sustainable use of water resources. The NFEPA products, such as maps and supporting information, form part of a comprehensive approach to the sustainable and equitable development of South Africa’s scarce water resources. For integrated water resources planning, the NFEPA guides how many rivers, wetlands and estuaries, and which ones, should remain in a natural or near-natural condition to support the water resource protection goals of the NWA (Act 36 of 1998) and for biodiversity resilience and persistence (WRC, 2011). 2.2.9 National Biodiversity Assessment The National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) is the main tool used to monitor and report on the current condition of biodiversity in South Africa and thus, forms the empirical evidence upon which existing policies and strategic objectives are based and informs current and future activities aimed at improving the management and conservation of biological resources (SANBI, 2019). The results of the NBA feed into the NBSAP, the National Biodiversity Framework (NBF) and the National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy (NPAES), among others, which include the National Spatial Development Framework, the NW&SMP and the National Biodiversity Economy Strategy. The NBA acknowledges the following (SANBI, 2019): • The ecological infrastructure of rivers, inland wetlands and their catchment areas complements built infrastructure (such as dams) for the sustainable delivery of water to people. Catchment-level water resource planning and management are crucial to ensure that the diversity, functionality, and connectivity of ecological infrastructure are managed and maintained; • The SWSAs are areas in the landscape that supply a disproportionate quantity of water to their size and/or have high groundwater recharge. These nationally critical areas provide freshwater for downstream urban areas. Protection and rehabilitation, particularly the management of invasive plants, should be prioritised in the SWSAs; and • The protection and rehabilitation of estuaries through the implementation of Ecological Water Requirements (EWR) and protecting the Estuarine Functional Zone (EFZ) and its structural habitat from poorly planned coastal development is critical for maintaining resilience and enhancing future estuary benefits. 2.2.10 National Groundwater Strategy The National Groundwater Strategy (NGS) of 2016 is a detailed review of the strategy of 2010 subdivided into chapters with each consisting of current groundwater challenges and recommended actions. The NGS aims to improve the recognition of the strategic value, use and protection of groundwater as provided for by the NWA (Act 36 of 1998). The following strategic actions from Theme 9 on Groundwater Resource Planning and Development of the NGS are pertinent to the current project (DWS, 2016): • The development of regional and sub-regional information on areas expected to be most affected by drought, with plans for monitoring and targeting drought-proofing measures Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 12 during and ahead of droughts (e.g. rehabilitation of groundwater supply infrastructure and well deepening); and • Conduct groundwater resource assessment and development programmes (including the rehabilitation of existing water supply boreholes) for towns threatened by surface water shortages as water needs increase. 3. REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES IN PRACTICE 3.1 OVERVIEW Policy implementation has been a great challenge for governments across all public sectors since 1994 (von Holdt, 2010). Three processes are reported to be the contributing factors, namely, political transition, state transformation and administrative restructuring linked to new mandates, missions, and policies under the new dispensation (Bourblanc, 2017). The combination of these factors results in massive disorganisation within public administrations (Bourblanc, 2017). There is, and would continue to be, a notable change in the institutional arrangements, water governance and organisational responsibilities within the South African water sector. Clarity in areas around defined roles and responsibilities is critical for effective management and decision-making concerning water resources and their quality. This section of the report, therefore, focuses on roles and responsibilities as well as initiatives in the rehabilitation and management of water resources. 3.2 RELEVANT AUTHORITIES AND THEIR ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN REHABILITATION MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES Cooperative governance is a prerequisite for the successful conservation and management of the country’s scarce water resources (DFFE, 2021b). The environmental governance of rehabilitation of water resources is hampered by the fragmentation of efforts across different projects, programmes, and initiatives due to separate mandates and various institutions responsible for this work. For example, the three national Departments that are responsible for regulating wetland management include the DWS, DFFE and DALRRD. Whilst significant progress has been made in developing an enabling legislative environment for water resource management and protection in terms of the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) (Act 108 of 1998), the NWA, and the CARA, legislation deals with water resources in a fragmented manner, hampering effective implementation whilst effective mechanisms to coordinate cross-departmental actions are not well established (DFFE, 2021c). In response to the challenges discussed above, Table 2 presents the summarised roles and responsibilities of several regulating authorities with a mandate for rivers, wetlands, estuaries, lakes and dams as well as groundwater management in South Africa to ensure a coordinated approach for the effective protection, management, and conservation of water resources (DFFE 2021a; 2021b; ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability 3 , 2018). 3 ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international non-governmental organisation that promotes sustainable development. ICLEI provides technical consulting to local governments to identify and meet sustainability objectives. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 13 Table 2: Roles and responsibilities of regulating authorities in rehabilitation management of water resources Sources: DFFE, 2021a; 2021b; ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability, 2018 Relevant Authority Role in Rehabilitation Management of Water Resources DWS The DWS is mandated in terms of the NWA 36 of 1998 to manage, protect, control, and conserve water resources as well as to regulate activities that affect water resources. The DWS is also responsible for the implementation of the related NWRS which places considerable demand on water management and calls for research support. For example, the primary focus for the management of wetlands is principally ensuring the sustainable management of the factors that drive wetland formation and functioning, which includes their flow, geomorphology, and water quality to ensure that the desired response in terms of the habitat and biota and thus ecosystem services is maintained. The NWA provides for the establishment of Water Management Areas (WMAs) and Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) to manage the water resources in each WMA. The establishment of CMAs is targeted for the purpose of delegating water resource management to the regional or catchment level and involving local communities. It is envisaged that the water resources within every WMA will be managed by its own CMA, which would have its own board. The CMAs are responsible for the protection of water resources and for developing a Catchment Management Strategy (CMS) for their WMAs. At the time of writing of this report, the Inkomati Usuthu CMA and the Breede-Olifants CMA are the only CMAs that are fully operational, although others are in the process of being fully established. DFFE The DFFE is mandated with environmental management and regulation of activities that affect the environment and ecosystems, including wetland ecosystems, within the framework of sustainable development, in terms of NEMA (Act 108 of 1998). The key policy documents related to the achievement of this mandate is the provincial Environmental Implementation Plan (EIP) and the Environmental Management Plan (EMP). The DFFE ensures the appropriate protection of wetland ecosystems through their protection and management. Below are the legal mandates given to the DFFE in relation to the rehabilitation of water resources: • To effect a national system of representative protected areas to preserve the country’s biodiversity, natural landscapes, and seascapes, including wetlands and wetland-dependent species, and sustainably manage such areas, in terms of the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003 (NEM:PAA); • To provide for the management, conservation, and sustainable utilisation of biodiversity, including wetlands and wetland-dependent species, in terms of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 57 of 2003 (NEM:BA). The key policy document related to the achievement of this mandate is the National Biodiversity Framework; • To protect health, well-being and the environment, including wetland ecosystems, by providing reasonable measures for avoiding and minimise the generation of waste, treating and safely disposing of waste, preventing pollution and ecological degradation and remediating contamination and significant health and pollution risks, in terms of the National Environmental Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008 (NEM: WA). The key policy document related to the achievement of this mandate is the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS); and • To determine the coastal zone, provide for integrated and cross-sectoral coastal zone management, and the regulation of activities that affect the coastal zone, including estuaries and wetland ecosystems, within the framework of sustainable development, in terms of the National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act 24 of 2008 (ICMA). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 14 Relevant Authority Role in Rehabilitation Management of Water Resources In addition to the above, the Working for Wetlands (WfWets) Environmental Management Programme (EMPr) was gazetted in 2020 by the Minister. The EMPr has been adopted to allow for the exclusion of all activities triggered by the WfWets projects as identified in the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations Listing Notice 1, 2 and 3 of 2014, as amended, from the requirement to obtain environmental authorisation from the competent authority as contemplated in section 24(2)(e) of the Act. DALRRD The DALRRD is mandated to develop agricultural value chains, provide agricultural inputs, and monitor production and consumption in the agriculture sector, as well as facilitate comprehensive rural development. Chapter 6 of the NDP envisions an integrated and inclusive economy that involves the expansion of agricultural activity, the need for effective land reform and the promotion of sustainable rural development. The following are the roles and responsibilities of DALRRD to the rehabilitation of water resources: • National LandCare Programme - This is a government-supported community-based initiative which is active throughout the country. It is driven by both the public and private sectors through partnerships and cooperation. It seeks to achieve the following: o Conserve natural resources and sustainably use them; o Create a conservation ethic through education awareness; and o Create jobs through initiatives such as the Expanded Public Works Programme – (EPWP) and address poverty by launching various natural resource rehabilitation, improvement, and conservation projects. This initiative identifies serious concerns about land and water degradation in each province, and specific projects address these issues. The EPWP projects have been implemented in all nine provinces through the LandCare Conditional Grant, whereby ring-fenced funding is transferred to provinces. The assessment and reporting on the projects are required, and the provincial departments use the reporting tools provided by the EPWP to report on the number of jobs created. The provincial departments forward additional quarterly and annual reports to the DALRRD to monitor performance and the impact of the programme on the state of the natural agricultural resources. • Wetlands - the DALRRD engages in wetland protection and management. This is from a perspective of ensuring that the impacts on wetlands on agricultural land are managed such that it allows for the continued provision of services by those wetlands and thereby limits land degradation and ensures sustainable agricultural development. In addition to the above, the EMPr for LandCare projects was published under Government Notice 276 in Government Gazette 44341 on March 29, 2021. It allows for the exclusion of specific LandCare projects from requiring individual environmental authorisations, provided they adhere to the conditions outlined in the generic EMPr. This implies that LandCare projects can proceed without separate environmental authorisations if they comply with the generic EMPr's guidelines for managing and mitigating environmental impacts. SANBI The SANBI, a regulatory body, plays a leading role in South Africa’s national commitment to biodiversity management and mainstreaming biodiversity considerations into other government sectors or industries. It is mandated in terms of the NEM:BA 10 of 2004 to account for the conservation of South Africa’s biological resources and includes several measures that serve to protect our biodiversity, which includes the regulation of activities affecting threatened or protected species and ecosystems and activities involving AIS. The Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 15 Relevant Authority Role in Rehabilitation Management of Water Resources core activities of SANBI involve research, conservation, sustainable use, biodiversity information systems, education, garden development, horticulture, ecosystems rehabilitation and bioregional planning programmes and policies. The SANBI coined the term ‘Ecological Infrastructure (EI)’ 4 because rivers, wetlands and their catchment areas are crucial EI for water security, often complementing built infrastructure, but the benefits of these ecosystems are currently compromised by their poor ecological condition. Ecological Infrastructure has received attention and initiated further innovative biodiversity mainstreaming work at the interface between the biodiversity and water sectors, which includes a strong emphasis on wetland management. The Freshwater programme is a SANBI initiative which recognises the value and threatened status of South Africa’s freshwater biodiversity, and the need to build competence and leadership in this area. Initiatives falling within the Freshwater Programme to date include: • The WfWet, which focuses on the rehabilitation, protection, and sustainable use of wetlands; • National Wetland Inventory, which entails mapping the extent, distribution, and diversity of freshwater ecosystems; and • The NFEPA project, which aims to identify a national network of freshwater conservation areas and to explore institutional mechanisms for their implementation. WRC The WRC was established in terms of the Water Research Act 34 of 1971 with the function to: • Promote coordination, cooperation and communication in water research; • Establish water research needs and priorities; • Stimulate and fund water research according to priority, promote the effective transfer of information and technology; • Enhance knowledge and capacity building within the water sector. The WRC also has a research support function for the DWS in terms of the following: • Addressing issues such as water for all, quality of life, and a sustainable environment which are essential parts of the country’s national priorities and require considerable attention; • Implementation of the NWA 36 of 1998 and the related NWRS, which places considerable demand on water management and calls for research support; and • The role of South Africa in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), especially regarding water resources and water supply and sanitation issues, poses new challenges and requires new initiatives, which are within the mandate of the WRC. The primary source of funding for wetland-related research in South Africa has, to date, been directed through the WRC. This institution has remained responsive to the needs of the sector, which has resulted in the emphasis on research shifting regularly. For example, in recognition of the complexity of wetland management on the ground, and to facilitate alignment with the United Nations (UN) SDGs, the WRC now encourages multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral wetland-related research that integrates socio-economic aspects. Department of Mineral Resources and Energy (DMRE) The DMRE is mandated by the Mineral Petroleum and Resources Development Act of 2002 (MPRDA), which serves to regulate mining activities that are considered a threat to ecosystems. Chapter 4, Mineral and Environmental Regulation 37(1) considers the 4 Ecological Infrastructure (EI) refers to naturally functioning ecosystems that generate or deliver valuable services to people and the economy. It complements built or hard infrastructure and is just as important for providing services and underpinning development, and provides services such as fresh water, climate regulation, soil formation and disaster risk reduction (SANBI, 2024). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 16 Relevant Authority Role in Rehabilitation Management of Water Resources principles set out in section 2 of NEMA. The principles of NEMA shall: (a) apply to all prospecting and mining operations and any matter relating to such operations; and (b) serve as guidelines for the interpretation, administration and implementation of the environmental requirements of the act. According to the MPRDA, the holder of a mining right or permit is held liable for any environmental damage and pollution that takes place during their mining operations and must provide sufficient financial provisions for the rehabilitation of the natural environment adversely impacted by the associated pollution and damage incurred. These Acts resulted in the “One Environmental Management System” on the 8th of December 2014, which essentially represents an inter-departmental agreement between DMRE, DFFE and DWS. The agreement states that DMRE is considered the Competent Authority for the Environmental Authorisation of mining-related activities; however, appeals with regards to Environmental Authorisation would still be dealt with by the DFFE Minister. The DWS remains the Competent Authority for the review, approval and issuing of Water Use Licences (WULs) and according to the agreement set out through these amendment acts would aim to align and integrate the WUL process and timeframes with the processes and timeframes associated with applications for mining rights under the MPRDA and environmental authorisation under NEMA. Local Government i.e., Municipalities Local governments are mandated with water management as part of their wider mandates for environmental management and sustainable development. This mandate is broad and not clearly set out in legislation and policy. Whilst there is no explicit mandate for local municipalities to manage, conserve and regulate the activities that affect water resources including wetlands in their jurisdiction, the points mentioned below are a broad but clear mandate for local governments to ensure that their by-laws, plans, strategies, frameworks, programmes and day-to-day operations and provision of services adhere and give effect to the following principles and objectives: • Promote and ensure a safe and healthy environment that is not harmful to human health and well-being in terms of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, and Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000 (MSA); • Promote and ensure environmental sustainability through ensuring ecologically sustainable development, natural resource use, land use and service provision in terms of the Constitution, Municipal Systems Act, Spatial Planning and Land-Use Management Act 16 of 2013 (SPLUMA), NEMA and NWA; • Minimise negative environmental and natural resource impacts in terms of SPLUMA, NEMA, and NWA; • Promote and ensure the conservation and protection of the environment for the benefit of present and future generations in terms of the Constitution, NEM:PAA, NEM:BA); and • Prevent and/or mitigate the occurrence or re-occurrence of disasters in terms of the Disaster Management Act 52 of 2002. Note: South Africa is a signatory to several international agreements relating to biodiversity and wetlands, such as the United Nations Convention on the CBD and the RAMSAR Convention. International agreements such as these provide a framework and commitment for national action and international co-operation, which municipalities are obliged to adhere to. In addition to the regulating authorities and their associated responsibilities discussed in Table 2, the following are some of the existing coordinating bodies that also ensure the protection, management, and conservation of water resources consultative process: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 17 • The Wetland Task Group (WTG) coordinated by the DWS, was formed in 2005. It was originally formed to promote integrated and co-operative management of wetland resources with the DWS and ensure coordinated efforts between the DWS national office directorates and its provincial offices and institutions. In 2016, it was agreed that partner departments should form part of the WTG, and the task group would be the Inter-departmental WTG. Currently, the WTG is attended by representatives from the DWS (both National and Provincial Offices, including CMAs), DFFE, DFFE WfWet, DALRRD, Agricultural Research Council (ARC), and the WRC. This group also serves as a platform for members of the South African Wetland Society (SAWS), NGOs and other external specialists to discuss wetland-related matters, concerns and ideas with government departments, as and when required; • The Freshwater Ecosystem Network (FEN) is an initiative focused on the management of freshwater ecosystems coordinated by the SANBI. The purpose of the initiative is to obtain feedback and discuss freshwater ecosystems-related research, challenges, solutions, experiences, and ideas to ensure alignment on work done by various stakeholders such as government, civil society, and academia, through a consultation process; • The South African Wetland Society (SAWS) is a forum through which the professional field of practice of wetland science is developed. Their vision is to build and promote excellence, professionalism and ethics in the Wetland Community of Practice of South Africa. The mission is to develop and maintain professional standards and best management practices of subscribed wetland practitioners in South Africa to promote wetland sciences, conservation and management through accreditation, collaboration and self-regulation of all society members; • Society of Ecological Restoration (SER) is a global network of members, both individuals and organisations, who are engaged in the management of ecologically sensitive ecosystems. The mission of SER is to promote ecological restorations as a means of sustaining the diversity of life on Earth and re-establishing an ecologically healthy relationship between nature and culture; • National Ramsar or Wetland Committees provide a mechanism to promote the objectives of the Convention beyond the individuals and branches of government that are officially charged with its implementation. National Committees include government agencies and other stakeholders as well as National Focal Points from the other multilateral environmental agreements; • The Western Cape Estuaries Task Team (WCETT) is a forum for the various stakeholders to coordinate and jointly plan management strategies for estuaries. This assists the provinces in preventing mutually incompatible activities and promoting sustainable development of the coast for the benefit of its citizens. The WCETT discusses development proposals that could impact the ecological functioning of estuaries and advises the authorities of any possible impact. The WCETT fosters formal linkages between the local, district and provincial spheres of government regarding the management of estuaries. This results in improved dialogue on the various activities that affect the coastal management of estuaries. The forum also allows stakeholders in the provinces to play a role in decision-making regarding the selection and implementation of funded estuary research and management projects; • The National Water Quality Management Forum is a platform with the purpose of discussing issues regarding water quality in the country and formulating solutions to address those challenges. The forum also provides regular progress reports and feedback on the Anti- Pollution Task Team and National Water Quality Steering Committee actions. The Directorate of Water Resources Regulations within the DWS is responsible for coordinating this forum. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 18 • The National Water Monitoring Committee is a platform where strategic documents such as the National Water Monitoring Plan and National State of Water Report are developed to provide guidelines towards the maintenance and enhancement of National Monitoring Systems and National Information Systems as stipulated in Chapter 14 of NWA 36 of 1998, Chapter 10 of Water Services Act (WSA) 108 of 1997 and Chapter 14 of NWRS Edition 3; and • Catchment Management Forums (CMFs) 5 are platforms where co-operative and consultative water resource management takes place. The platforms allow water users within various catchments to provide and share information relating to their respective water related issues (e.g., water quality, poor infrastructure, illegal abstractions, etc). This is achieved through various regional collaborations aimed at continuously improving relationships amongst adjacent landowners and water users to ensure a sustainable and climate change-resilient environment. 3.3 INITIATIVES This section of the report provides an account of the various water resources rehabilitation-related projects, programmes and initiatives that are either ongoing or completed at a catchment level, with specific reference to rivers, wetlands, lakes, dams, estuaries, and groundwater resources in South Africa. The aim of this section is to detail and demonstrate on the ground rehabilitation activities where the RMGs can be applied in real-world situations. It is worth noting that this section provides examples of rehabilitation projects for water resources, and the list is not intended to be comprehensive. 3.3.1 Rivers River ecosystems are increasingly threatened and adversely affected by alterations in flow and physico-chemical properties driven by activities such as unlawful damming, irrigation, excessive water abstractions and poor catchment management (SANBI, 2014). In addition, continuous and excessive amounts of pollutants from domestic (formal and informal settlements), agricultural, mining and industrial sources upstream, solid waste along with infestation and encroachment of AIP and AIS, exacerbate these impacts. A great deal of research and concerted efforts were undertaken by various institutions to identify the impacts and implement a wide range of rehabilitation interventions. An example of an initiative that was completed and yielded positive results is that of the Kuils River, located in the Western Cape. The river was adversely affected by channelisation and rehabilitation interventions, primarily aimed at flood control, were initiated in 2000 and completed in 2002 (WRC, 2003). Similarly, the Palmiet River, located in the Kwazulu-Natal, was highly compromised due to the impacts of waste materials emanating from massive informal settlements and discharging into the water resource (eThekwini Municipality, n.d). To address this challenge and to rehabilitate the watershed services along the river, artificial wetlands 6 were constructed to emulate the features of natural wetlands and act as bio-filters to remove/trap sediments, and pollutants, before entering the river system (eThekwini Municipality, 5 CMFs are not mandated by any legislation but are responsible for forming partnerships with government departments and private institutions to improve catchment conditions. 6 Artificial wetlands, also known as constructed wetlands, are engineered systems designed to utilise natural processes involving wetland vegetation, soils, and their associated microbial assemblages to treat contaminated water or to enhance ecology, ecological class, aesthetics, recreation, land use, land value or landscape design. They are tailored to meet specific regulatory and site-specific requirements and can be designed in several configurations depending on the treatment or other goals (DWS, 2025). Note: see summarised examples, extracted from DWS (2025), of various types of constructed wetlands and/or artificial wetlands and their applicability in South Africa on Annexure A. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 19 n.d). The said rehabilitation intervention has been active since 2014. Table 3 provides an overview of river rehabilitation initiatives implemented on the systems listed below and their respective outcomes: 1. Tsitsa (Eastern Cape) and Tolwane River (Gauteng) System: 2024 – ongoing; 2. Cape Peninsula rivers, Western Cape: 2024 – ongoing; 3. Six Water Management Areas (i.e., Breede-Gouritz, Limpopo): 2021 – ongoing; 4. Aller River, Kwazulu-Natal: 2017 – ongoing; 5. Palmiet River, Kwazulu-Natal, 2014 – ongoing; 6. Rondegat River, Western Cape: 2013 – 2013; 7. The river system of the uMzimbuvu Catchment, Eastern Cape: 2013 – ongoing; 8. Lakenvlei, Upper Wilge: 2011 – ongoing; 9. Westlake River, Western Cape: 2004 – ongoing; 10. Selected Rivers of the Zandvlei Catchment, Western Cape: 2003 – ongoing; 11. Silvermine River, Western Cape: 2000 – 2002; 12. Kuils River, Kwazulu-Natal, 2000 – 2002; 13. Lourens River, Western Cape: 2000 – 2002; 14. Kruger National Park (KNP) Rivers, Limpopo: 1999 – 2002. 15. Vaal, Orange, Tugela basins: 1970 – ongoing; and 16. Critical catchments (i.e., Steenkamps Berg, uMngeni Vlei: X – X. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 20 Table 3: River rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned 1. • Table Mountain Aquifer Partnership • Groundwater recharge via managed river abstraction; and • Contamination monitoring Cape Peninsula rivers (i.e., Liesbeek, Salt. Augment urban water supply; reduce sediment pollution. Pilot phase (2024–2026); supplies 10% of Cape Town's water . • Aquifers mitigate climate- induced flow variability. • Urban runoff requires advanced filtration. 2. • DWS Adopt-a- River, in collaboration with DFFE, SANBI, ARC, UNEP and Global Environmental Facility (GEF). The initiative aims to directly mitigate the negative impacts of AIS on South Africa’s biodiversity assets and indirectly contribute to the improvement of rural food security and livelihoods. This will be achieved through a clearing of the AIS using a combination of physical and biological control methods as per the WRC Comprehensive Manual for River Rehabilitation (WRC Project KSA2: K5/2270) and the DWS RMGs of Water Resources with specific reference to Volume 1: Rivers. Eastern Cape (Tsitsa River System) and Gauteng (Tolwane River System). Clearing of AIS to enhance sustainable biodiversity conservation and livelihood improvement. The planning activities commenced in 2024, and the initiative is ongoing. It is envisaged that the initiative would be carried out over three years. The initiative entails the following planned activities: • Stakeholder engagement; • Surveillance and documentation of livelihoods; • Development of the Management Action Plan for control of AIS at each site; • Identification and recruitment of community participants; • Identification of sensitive Indigenous vegetation for protection; The initiative is still new and ongoing. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 21 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned • Prioritise AIS plants for control; • Categorisation of prioritised AIS for removal based on habitat type and impact on local ecology; • Identify clearing methods; • Disposal of cleared material/biomass; • Rehabilitation of sites (optional, especially in the Tsitsa Catchment); • Monitoring and Evaluation. 3. • CMAs. • Decentralized water allocation; and • Community engagement in river health monitoring. Six Water Management Areas (i.e., Breede-Gouritz, Limpopo). Implement the National Water Act; balance agricultural/urb an demand with ecological flows. Established in 2021, operational in six provinces. • Engaging local stakeholders decreases conflict. • Data-sharing gaps hinder enforcement. 4. • Kloof Conservancy 7 • eThekwini Conservancies Forum (ECF) 8 The rehabilitation activity entails the rehabilitation of the ecological condition of selected rivers within the eThekwini Municipal Area. The rivers are under stress from the growth of AIP waste pollution spills. These are regarded as threats to eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Rehabilitation of a 5.8km stretch of the Aller River. The rehabilitation activities commenced in July 2017 and are ongoing with the status below: • Significant progress was made in the clearing of AIP and waste; • Importance of natural environment in providing the foundation for human well-being, development and resilience; • Issues of biodiversity, water and climate change 7 Kloof Conservancy seeks to restore the health of selected rivers across the municipal area by means of river assessments, rehabilitation activities, restoration strategies and the mobilisation of resources for implementation. 8 The ECF is part of the regional node of conservancies, ‘Conservation KZN’ and represents all conservancies in the eThekwini Municipal Area. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 22 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned Sectors and stakeholders. 9 human health and the environment. A pilot approach was followed for a 5.8km stretch of the Aller River, which passes through New Germany and Clermont. • Steady flow of status quo updates and incident reports on sewage spills to inform stakeholders, project managers and relevant municipal departments; • Sewerage manholes were fixed timeously and improved water quality. were assimilated, as was the need to address these as part of Durban’s overall resilience strategy; • Importance of active and engaged citizens in contributing towards resilience strategy; and • Capacity building played a key role in creating awareness, building knowledge and equipping citizens with the skills for employment and contributing to a resilient society and economy. 5. • eThekwini Municipality; • SANBI; • uMngeni Ecological Infrastructure Partnership (UEIP); and • NGO - Amanzi Ethu Nobuntu. Palmiet River was highly compromised due to impacts from massive informal settlements built in wetland areas and along the riverbanks. Critical wetlands and riparian zones were severely modified. Increased surface run-off from informal settlements and flushing of various waste materials directly discharged into water resources and deteriorated water quality. Palmiet River KZN is a tributary that flows into the uMngeni River located in KwaZulu-Natal. It originates from the Kloof escarpment and drains into the larger uMngeni River system. Rehabilitation of the impacted reaches along the river. The rehabilitation activities have been active since 2014. • The initiative is ongoing. 9 Key sectors and stakeholders involved include the Environmental Planning and Climate Protection Department, the Municipal Department, the Municipal Department of Water and Sanitation, District Health Services (Provincial Department of Health and the Local Government authority), and local schools, communities, and local NGOs. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 23 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned The eThekwini Municipality identified strategic positions along the river reach to be rehabilitated by constructing artificial wetlands. The artificial wetlands emulated the features of natural wetlands and acted as bio-filters, by removing and/or trapping sediments and pollutants before entering the uMngeni river system. The other plans included the removal of Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs) and re- vegetating the banks with indigenous plants to stabilise the riparian zones. This rehabilitation intervention was aimed to reduce the sediment loads and pollutants in the river channel thereby helping to improve and maintain water quality. The filtering of pollutants would further decrease the build-up of water hyacinth that has resulted in poor water quality in the uMngeni river channel. The municipality recognised that a wide-scale initiative in the greater uMngeni catchment was necessary to pursue investments in the rehabilitation and sustainable management of ecological infrastructure as an effective additional strategy Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 24 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned towards reconciling supply and demand in this system. 6. • DFFE Working for Water (WfW); • Cape Nature; • WRC; and • Sectors and stakeholders. 10 The presence of AIS in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) has negative consequences on the rich biodiversity and endemism of the region. To control this problem, a national-scale programme was launched, namely the Rondegat River Rehabilitation Programme. The river is regarded as nationally important, and to address its impacts, dense infestations of the invasive Australian Acacia and Eucalyptus species were cleared from the riparian zone. The clearing took place in the lower reaches of the river and was followed by the eradication of the smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), using piscicide rotenone 11 , a commonly used pesticide to eradicate fish populations. This method was used to ensure that the native fish, which had become a threatened species due to the presence of the smallmouth bass, could recolonise from the upper reaches of the river. Rondegat River, Cederberg Wilderness Area, Western Cape, South Africa. Rehabilitation of the native biodiversity of the river through eradication of alien trees and predatory alien fish along the riparian zone of the lower reaches of the river - eradication was important for native threatened fish species re-colonisation from the upper reaches of the river. The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2013 and were completed the same year. The early results suggested that the native riparian vegetation and fish are recovering well post- rehabilitation. Valuable lessons were learned, and the project illustrated the success of various aspects of good practice. These include, amongst others: • Careful planning, close and enthusiastic collaboration between the affected catchment and private landowners; • Public participation to address concerns; • Simultaneous and coordinated application of mechanical, chemical and biological control of alien plants and chemical control of alien fish; and • Advice and direction were provided by qualified ecologists. Note: • Literature indicates that it is not yet possible to assess the longer-term success of the project. The lessons learned should be 10 Key sectors and stakeholders involved included Cape Nature, WfW, University of Stellenbosch, Rhodes University, the Centre for Invasion Biology, SAIAB and National Research Foundation. 11 Rotenone is only possible under very specific conditions as it wipes out all fish at the dosing site and downstream. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 25 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned considered for similar projects in other locations. • It is also important to note that the use of using piscicide rotenone is only applicable under very specific conditions and should not be advocated as a general solution. 7. • Conservation South Africa (CSA), in partnership with Environmental and Rural Solutions (ERS), as well as sectors and stakeholders 12 . • Conservation International’s Freshwater Science Program and CSA, with funding from the Pisces Foundation, and in collaboration with The river system extends over 200km from its source, which is in the Maloti Drakensberg watershed and extends to its estuary at Port St Johns, where it drains into the Indian Ocean. The river system is, however, classified as being vulnerable due to inappropriate land uses and alien plant infestation (mainly Acacia mearnsii and Acacia dealbata), uncontrolled burning that has led to degrading effects on the sustainability of the upper catchment area. The most prominent types of degradation that are observable include soil The river system lies along the northern boundary of the Eastern Cape in the uMzimvubu Catchment. • Rehabilitatio n and protecting catchment integrity and stability; • Improving livelihoods and the resilience of ecosystems and economies, through sound • The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2013 and are envisaged to be completed in 2032. The rehabilitation activities are ongoing with the following planned project phases: o Phase 1: 2013 – 2017 o Phase 2: 2018 – 2022 o Phase 3: 2023 – 2027 • Literature indicates that the project was still in Phase 1 of its implementation when it was published; and • The results of the FHI assessment (Annexure B) demonstrated that the ecosystem service delivery is under stress, mainly due to poor water supply reliability and cultural service delivery. These results call for the need to enhance the supply of benefits that 12 Key sectors and stakeholders involved include, Alfred Nzo District Municipality, Alfred Nzo Development Agency, Amazawa Agricultural Co-op, Bakoena Traditional Council, The Cedarville Conservancy, DFFE and DALRRD (Eastern Cape), Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEDEAT) (Eastern Cape Provincial Operations), DWS (Eastern Cape region), Eastern Cape Parks and Tourism Agency (ECPTA), Eastern Cape NGO Coalition, Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT), LIMA Rural Development Foundation, Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project (MDTP), Matatiele Local Municipality, Mehloding Trust, Moshesh Traditional Council, Mount Currie Community Development Organisation, SANBI, Save Act, Sikhululiwe Bawo Women’s Co-operative, Sustaining the Wild Coast (SWC), WESSA, Wildlands Conservation Trust (WCT). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 26 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned various institutional partners, including the Umzimvubu Catchment Partnership (UCP) 13 . erosion, damage to infrastructure, water supply shortages and loss of grazing land. institutional cooperation. o Phase 4: 2028 – 2032 • During 2022, Conservation International’s Freshwater Science Program and CSA including other partners, developed and applied the Freshwater Health Index (FHI) tool 14 to evaluate its overall health in three components namely Ecosystem Vitality, Ecosystem Services and Governance and Stakeholders. Importantly, the assessment process included stakeholder meetings to obtain some of the data necessary for the FHI calculations and to validate results. people in the catchment need and strengthening the institutional decision- making for water resources management. 13 The UCP is a platform where various stakeholders have committed to foster collective action to implement a catchment management strategy and restoration plan for the benefit of people and nature (Conservation International, 2022). 14 The FHI is a tool used monitor and measure the achievement of collaborative efforts adopted within the Umzimvubu Catchment, through the UCP. It provides a “State of the Catchment” report that can be used to inform the initiatives and approaches of stakeholders working in this landscape (Conservation International, 2022). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 27 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned 8. • BirdLife South Africa. • Protection of river-dependent birds; and • Advocacy for environmental water allocations. Key bird areas (e.g., Lakenvlei, Upper Wilge). • Safeguard habitats for endemics like White- winged Flufftail and Grey Crowned Crane. Active since 2011; 12 priority catchments identified. • Flagship species (i.e., Orange-breasted Waxbill) raise public awareness. • Mining/agriculture requires stricter buffer zones. 9. • City of Cape Town. Westlake River rehabilitation initiative - the river rises along the slopes and flows South of the Westlake golf course and Pollsmoor prison. Near Pollsmoor, the river was dammed before flowing under the Simon van der Stel freeway and into the Suburb of Kirstenhof. The City of Cape Town undertook rehabilitation of the river to improve its ecological health by addressing impacts of water quality, invasive plant removal, erosion control, and improving the river's functionality as a natural asset for the surrounding community. Westlake River rises along the slopes of the Steenberg koppie about 3km to the west of Kirstenhof, Western Cape. Improvement of the river’s ecological condition and functionality as a natural asset for the surrounding community. The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2004 and are ongoing. • The rehabilitation had a positive impact on the suburb’s entire property market. This was due to the aesthetic and recreational opportunities it afforded to all whose homes were within easy walking distance of the river. • The main potential benefit of the initiative for the biodiversity of the area was the clearing of alien species, mainly typha reeds. These reeds tend to choke systems, making it difficult for other species to grow. The ongoing maintenance of the river and wetlands undoubtedly enhanced the ability to attenuate floods. The removal of silt Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 28 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned and clearing of vegetation enhanced this ability. The landscaping of the area was improved, paths were laid, bridges and benches installed as well as a play park for children. 10. • Source to Sea 15 in partnership with the City of Cape Town, South African National Parks (SANParks), civil society, as well as sectors and stakeholders 16 . To develop a cohesive management strategy to rehabilitate and maintain the Zandvlei Catchment to restore healthy ecosystems, create jobs, build climate resilience and offer increased recreational and mobility benefits. The catchment is critical because close to Table Mountain National Park which contains critical fynbos vegetation that is critically endangered in sections of the broader municipal area. Zandvlei Catchment, Cape Town, South Africa. • Maximise urban natural recreational space, restore degraded natural and open space corridors for biodiversity conservatio n; • Improve water quality, link river corridors and The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2003 and are ongoing as this is a long- term project. • An Integrated approach promotes coherence within government and non-government collaborations. It builds bridges between communities and stakeholders and creates physical linkages between nodes along the rivers. It also requires coordination to ensure collaboration, coherence partnership building. • The network optimises job creation cost- efficiency. It provides the basis to promote the city and stimulate the local 15 Source to Sea is a network of businesses, communities and stakeholders that collectively seek to manage water quality and quantity to support the Cape Town region’s abundant biodiversity. 16 Key sectors and stakeholders involved include SANParks, City of Cape Town, ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA), World Wildlife Foundation (WWF), Table Mountain Fund, Cape Action for People and the Environment, Cape town Tourism, Aurecon, SANBI, the Watershed Project, NGOs, private organisations and landowners and volunteers. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 29 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned catchments via recreational multi-use trails and enhance eco- heritage. economy. Investing in natural assets leverages high economic values through tourism, and recreation, builds resilience to climate change and reduces vulnerability. 11. • WRC initiative in collaboration with: o Freshwater Research Unit, University of Cape Town; o National Parks; o City of Cape Town; and • DFFE WfW. Silvermine River rehabilitation initiative - the river is about 12km long, rises on Table Mountain and drains into False Bay. At the time the initiative was undertaken, all the river’s catchment was occupied by South African National Parks except for the last 1-2km that flows through a golf course located in a municipal land, which includes an estuary. Much of the upper catchment burnt in the January 2000 fires and the remaining alien vegetation was hand-cleared. The initiative focussed on the responses of the river to clearance activities at different points along the river length. Silvermine River rises at an altitude of 640m in the Steenberg Mountains, 10km South of Cape Town. Monitor and record any changes to the river and its associated habitats as recovery took place after the fires in January 2000 and as the remaining alien vegetation was cleared. The rehabilitation activities commenced in January 2000 and were completed in 2002. The different sections of the catchment responded in different ways to the fires and clearing methods. The recovery of indigenous vegetation was more successful in old pine areas than in those that supported Acacia. The riparian and in- stream plant communities responded more rapidly than those of the hillslopes. Near vertical sandy banks collapsed into the river with every flood, affecting all downstream reaches. More investigation of this deposit, including consideration of possible active removal, was recommended. 12. • WRC in collaboration with: o Department of Earth Science, University of Kuils River rehabilitation initiative - the river rises on the Cape Flats. Land-use changes, especially urbanisation and wastewater inputs, changed the flow of the river to perennial. Increased The Kuils River rises at a low altitude in the eastern foothills of the Tygerberg Hills Upgrade the river channel to reduce flood risk and to record in detail the The rehabilitation activities commenced in January 2000 and were completed in 2002. • Data collection started early in the 2000/2001 No reference is made to lessons learned in literature other than extensive learning of new biomonitoring techniques in the 2000/2001 data collection period, which Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 30 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned Western Cape (UWC) as part of the MSc thesis 17 ; o National Parks; o City of Cape Town; and • DFFE WfW. stormwater run-off heightened the risk of flooding in the lower parts of the river. Channelisation impacted the geomorphological and ecological nature of the river. Alien species were also a concern in the lower reaches. The initiative focused on flood control and engineering works on the middle reaches of the river. in the Durbanville area. geomorphologic al and ecological characteristics of the river in an area of channelisation; and to track changes over one year of engineering activities and winter floods. summer and was completed before the autumn rains started. The full sampling programme was repeated in the second summer (2001/2002), to assess short-term change. guided the second summer of data collection. The sites were observed during the winter floods of 2001, and channel geometry was re-measured when changes occurred. 13. • WRC in collaboration with: o Department of Earth Science, UWC as part of the MSc thesis 18 ; o National Parks; o City of Cape Town; and • DFFE WfW. Lourens River Rehabilitation initiative - the upper catchment is dominated by pine plantations, orchards, prestigious wineries and a piggery along its middle reaches, and an urban area on its lower reaches. These activities led to the invasion of alien plants along riverbanks, poor water quality, reduced aquatic and riparian biodiversity and stream bank erosion. This resulted in observed channel changes or adjustments in the river, such as bank scouring and undercutting, channel erosion and channel migration, as well as the formation of bars and islands. The Lourens River rises at an altitude of 1080m in the Hottentots Holland Nature Reserve, Western Cape. Investigate the relationship between channel discharge, hydraulic biotopes and channel morphology. The rehabilitation activities commenced in January 2000 and were completed in 2002. • The original plan of the initiative was to record the river’s response to the clearance of alien vegetation, but this was cancelled. Similarly, the plan to record the river’s response to flood control measures in the urban area was also cancelled because of changes in plans by other organisations. • Channel morphology was largely determined by high flows; • Hydraulic biotopes changed as discharge changed; • Aquatic invertebrate assemblages indicated the river ecosystem was in a fair to good condition; • Floods enhanced the diversity of riparian and aquatic plants; and • Channel processes such as degradation and aggradation, and the 17 M.Sc. thesis of Ruth-Mary Fisher titled: The impacts of channelisation on the geomorphology and ecology of the Kuils River. 18 M.Sc. thesis of Lindie Smith titled: The relationship between channel discharge, hydraulic biotopes and channel morphology in the Lourens River. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 31 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned • Finally, in the 2 nd year of the project, this initiative was centred on the geomorphological investigation of two similar reaches of the river, their hydraulic characteristics and their responses to floods. occurrence of aquatic organisms could be correlated with the distribution of different- sized sediments. 14. • KNP Rivers Research Programme; and • DFFE WfW as well as sectors and stakeholders. 19 Coordinate and/or develop a protocol, tools 20 , and approaches for upstream and downstream activities relating to river and catchment management that were negatively affected by global climate change, population growth and distribution, over-utilisation, and changes in land use along the rivers. The main activities that imposed pressure (i.e., water scarcity, land degradation and siltation of canals) on the rivers included forestry, agriculture, tourism, municipal activity, and industrialisation. The alien plants Sabie-Sand Catchment, Limpopo. Develop a protocol to support the catchment stakeholders in their development of strategies to promote cooperative river management. The rehabilitation activities commenced in 1999 and were completed in 2002. • The use of all, as opposed to select knowledge sources, stimulated a conducive environment for discussion; • Dialogue and shared understanding are essential for effective co- operative governance; • Defining the most efficient and effective levels at which government and society engagement can enhance governance; 19 Key sectors and stakeholders involved included the environmental, forestry, economic, agriculture, tourism, irrigation, and industrial sectors. Other stakeholders included were the DWS, farmers and traditional leaders, Council for Development and Cooperation, Kgarudi Tribal Authority, South African National Civic Organisation (SANCO), Bushbuckridge Water Board, Sappi, KNP Conservation Section, Local Government and Sabie River Working Group. 20 Climate Positive Use Strategy (CPLUS) tool is a spatial decision support tool developed and designed by the Conservation International, CSA, and partners. It is used to prioritise land-use planning for climate mitigation strategies at a jurisdictional level. The first project for CPLUS was piloted in Kruger to Canyons Biosphere, South Africa, and leveraged on the co-design principles, local high-resolution spatial data and stakeholder engagement (Conservation International, n.d). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 32 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned had negatively affected water use and riparian zone health. • The river management process offered opportunities for forging quality relationships; and • The application of scientific information is necessary and helps to develop an understanding that informs people’s behaviour, directing it towards the sustainable use of the resource. 15. • Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) National Water Resource Infrastructure management; Dam safety and catchment protection Vaal, Orange, Tugela basins. Ensure water security through integrated river basin management; mitigate drought impacts. Ongoing; Orange River Project operational since the 1970s • Centralized management improves drought resilience. • Requires coordination with local municipalities. 16. • Working for Wetlands (SANBI/DFFE) Riverbank stabilization, erosion control, and invasive species removal. Critical catchments (i.e.., Steenkamps Berg, uMngeni Vlei). Restore natural flow regimes; protect wetland-river linkages. 200+ projects since 2004; 75% reduction in erosion hotspots. • Combining engineering and biodiversity restoration yields long- term benefits. • Community "River Ranger" programs enhance sustainability. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 33 3.3.2 Wetlands The most notable impacts on wetland ecosystems are afforestation, mining, surface and groundwater abstraction, agriculture, siltation/sedimentation of banks, sewage discharge, AIS, urbanisation and infrastructure development and Industrial Development Zones (IDZs). Afforestation alters the characteristics of the wetlands and the water supply that sustains them. Conversely, wetlands located near farming areas are impacted by fertilisers and pesticides, leading to nutrient enrichment of water and, ultimately, eutrophication. In addition, conversions of land for agricultural use cause wetland drainage, which results in wetlands that are less effective at regulating stream flow and purifying water, because the drainage channels speed up the movement of water through the wetland and exacerbate erosion by concentrating water flow (Collins, 2005). The main threats to the depression wetlands include industrial developments, recreational demands, and pollution from agricultural herbicides and pesticides (DEA, 2019a-f). A great deal of research and concerted efforts have been undertaken by various institutions to identify the impacts and implement a wide range of rehabilitation interventions. An example of an initiative that was completed and yielded positive results is that of the Zaalklapspruit wetland system in Mpumalanga. A series of unchannelled and channelled valley bottom wetlands were affected by agricultural and mining activities. To address these impacts, one of the rehabilitation interventions implemented in 2016 involved the diversion of water out of the main channel and spreading it across the width of the valley bottom while deactivating all agricultural drains. Monitoring conducted by the CSIR within the first year following rehabilitation revealed remarkable positive results. The Zaalklapspruit seep wetland was affected by erosion gullies that drained the water feeding the wetland. The proposed interventions included stabilisation of the gullies with gabions, a series of sediment fences and the use of rock packing. The planning phase for these interventions commenced in 2018, and the initiative is ongoing, with the next step being the implementation of the compiled rehabilitation plan. Table 4 provides an overview of wetland rehabilitation initiatives implemented on the systems listed below and their respective outcomes: 1. Zuurvlak wetland, Western Cape: 2018 – ongoing; 2. Du Toits River wetland, Western Cape: 2018 – ongoing; 3. Riviersonderend wetland system, Western Cape: 2018 – ongoing; 4. Sekhukhune 1 and 2 wetlands, Limpopo: 2017 – ongoing; 5. Maluti-A-Phofung (Ararat 2) wetland, Free State: 2017 – ongoing; 6. Zaalklapspruit wetland, Mpumalanga: 2016 - 2016; 7. Leliefontein wetland, Northern Cape: 2010 – 2010; 8. Manalana wetland system, Mpumalanga: 2006 - 2007; 9. Palmiet fens, Highveld peatlands, and Eastern Cape swamp forests: 2004 – 2013; 10. Agulhas Plain: 2000 – ongoing; 11. Krom River wetlands, Eastern Cape: 2000 – ongoing; 12. Rietvlei wetland system, Gauteng: 2000 – ongoing; and 13. Magaliesberg foothills (Ramsar Site): X – X. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 34 Table 4: Wetland rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned 1. • Freshwater Research Centre, in collaboration with The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and Anchor Environmental Consultants; • DFFE WfWet; and • Cape Nature. Zuurvlak wetland is classified as a seep, but there are areas of valley- bottom wetland associated with the stream channel. The wetland was assessed and erosion around plantation roads, exacerbated by afforestation with pines and their subsequent removal, was a major concern. Erosion gullies led to the draining of seeps feeding into the main wetland. The proposed interventions were to replace the road crossing with a drift and stabilise with gabions, a series of sediment fences and rock packing where the gully was shallower and narrower. Zuurvlak wetland is located on the Waterval River, a tributary of the Klein Berg River, which supplies water to Voëlvlei Dam, Western Cape . Investigation, assessment and prioritisation of affected wetlands for planned rehabilitation. The Planning Phase started in 2018, and the initiative is ongoing. • The wetland condition was assessed, and a rehabilitation plan and associated costs were compiled. The next step was to implement the rehabilitation plan. The initiative is ongoing. The completed rehabilitation plan is yet to be implemented. 2. • Freshwater Research Centre, in collaboration with TNC and Anchor Environmental Consultants. • DFFE WfWet: and • Cape Nature. Du Toits River wetland rehabilitation initiative - the wetland is a channelled valley-bottom, dominated by plant communities. The wetland was assessed, and there were no major impacts that were considered threatening to the wetland’s ecosystem services. During the early 2000s, there was an erosion event in the catchment that led to the deposition of considerable sediment in the wetland. The wetland has largely recovered from this event, with a mixed plant community growing quite rapidly over the deposited sediment. There has been extensive AIS removal over the past The wetland is located on the north-western margin of the Theewaterskloo f Dam, Western Cape. Investigation, assessment and prioritisation of affected wetlands for planned rehabilitation. The prioritisation aimed to rank the wetlands in order of their perceived importance for the supply The Planning Phase started in 2018, and the initiative is still ongoing. • The wetland condition was assessed, and a total area of approximately 82ha required clearing of AIS. The next step was to implement further clearing of the alien species. The initiative is ongoing. The completed rehabilitation plan is yet to be implemented. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 35 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned few years, and the vegetation now appears to be in good condition. The proposed intervention for the wetland is further clearing of alien species. of ecosystem services relating to water security. 3. • Freshwater Research Centre, in collaboration with TNC and Anchor Environmental Consultants; • WfWet; and • Cape Nature. Riviersonderend wetland system rehabilitation initiative - the wetland system is a channelled valley-bottom that flows into the Theewaterskloof Dam near the agricultural settlement of Vyeboom. The wetland was assessed as being largely modified, returning an overall D Category using the WET-Health assessment. Erosion and loss of vegetation were of major concern, which led to channelisation of flows in erosion gullies. This further led to the draining and desiccation of wetland areas. Rapid changes in water level around the margins of a dam triggered head-cut erosion into the wetlands feeding the dam. The following interventions were proposed for the impacts identified: Geo-cell concrete chute, extension of an existing earthen berm, sloping of the right bank and active revegetation along banks. The wetland is in quaternary catchment H60B, Western Cape. Investigation, assessment and prioritisation of affected wetlands for planned rehabilitation for water security in Cape Town. The planning Phase started in 2018, and the initiative is ongoing. • The wetland condition was assessed, and the rehabilitation plan and the associated costs were compiled. The next step was to implement the rehabilitation plan. The initiative is ongoing. The completed rehabilitation plan is yet to be implemented. 4. • DFFE WfWet. Sekhukhune wetland rehabilitation initiative - the wetlands (Sekhukhune 1 and 2) have been subjected to various impacts associated with the modification of the system's hydrology. Extensive grazing and The Sekhukhune 1 and 2 wetlands are in Quaternary Catchment Re-instate a more natural water distribution and retention pattern to The Planning Phase started in 2017, and the project is ongoing. • The wetland condition was assessed, and the rehabilitation plan and The initiative is ongoing. The completed rehabilitation plan is yet to be implemented. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 36 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned trampling within the wetlands occur, impacting the preferential flows and the vegetation’s roughness coefficient. The poor management of roads, fires, incision of the channel in places, sediment plumes and the diversion of water have resulted in further impacts on the system's hydrology, such as the desiccation of the adjacent wetland habitat and the encroachment of terrestrial species. A variety of interventions, including stone masonry weirs, and chutes with gabion structures were selected to deal with the high energy levels experienced. Soft interventions were selected to prevent erosion and trap sediment in lower flow energy sections. These include earthworks for sloping and infilling rock and soil blankets to stabilise surfaces and promote further stabilisation with re- vegetation. B51C in the Sekhukhune District Municipality, Limpopo Province. improve the overall functioning of the wetlands and associated habitat for important biota; and deactivate and stabilise head-cut erosion in drainage channels. associated costs were compiled. The next step is to implement the rehabilitation plan, which will be advertised for a tender in the 2025/26 financial year for implementation in 2026. 5. • DFFE WfWet. Maluti-A-Phofung wetland rehabilitation initiative - the wetland (Ararat 2) can be accessed from the Qwantani Road. It is dominated by temporarily to seasonally saturated soils. The eroded state of the hillslope seepage wetland caused a flow of sediment-laden water into the Sterkfontein Dam. The wetland has been extensively eroded, and the road acts as a sediment source during The Ararat 2 wetland is in Quaternary Catchment C81D, Free State. To halt sediment loss due to the eroded state of the wetland. The Planning Phase started in 2017, and the initiative is ongoing. • The wetland condition was assessed, and the rehabilitation plan and associated costs were compiled. The next step is to implement the rehabilitation plan, which will be advertised The initiative is ongoing. The completed rehabilitation plan is yet to be implemented. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 37 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned rainfall events. The proposed interventions for the wetland are sediment fences to trap sediments generated from the catchment and the road. Secondly, an appropriate revegetation plan was recommended for implementation within the gully behind the sediment fences to promote vegetation growth within the trapped sediments. for a tender in the 2025/26 financial year for implementation in 2026. 6. • WRC, SANBI, DFFE, CSIR and DFFE WfWet. The Zaalklapspruit wetland system comprises a series of unchannelled and channelled valley bottom wetlands that have been impacted by agricultural and mining activities. Rehabilitation interventions were then designed to divert water out of the main channel and spread it across the width of the valley bottom and deactivate all agricultural drains. This entailed the construction of a series of concrete weirs down the central channel and the construction of supplementary concrete walls, earthen berms, and earthworks in the broader wetland system. The wetland is situated in the B20G Quaternary Catchment within the Olifants WMA, approximately 15km east of Emalahleni in the Mpumalanga Province. Improvement of water quality impacted by agricultural and mining activities. The rehabilitation activities were conducted in the year 2016. Monitoring undertaken by the CSIR within the first-year post rehabilitation showed remarkably positive outcomes: • The pH and alkalinity were increased (acidity reduced) to levels in the natural freshwater range, where the metals became insoluble and precipitated out of the water column. • Decreased metal concentrations in the surface water; and reduced sulphate and TDS concentrations. 7. • Agricultural Research Council (ARC) Animal Production Institute based at the University of Leliefontein wetland rehabilitation initiative - the wetland was degraded under the threats posed by grazing, plant harvesting and the alien invasive poplar trees (Populus sp.) that were planted by the missionaries to provide additional sources of firewood to the community. The alien The Leliefontein Wetland is in the Kamiesberg Local Municipality, Northern Cape. Rehabilitate the natural spring and its surrounding wetland and protect this wetland from The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2010 and were completed the same year. • The ARC continually provided technical advice and support on the initiative’s progress. • The greatest ecological and biodiversity benefit of this initiative was the clearing of alien species. The Populus trees were cut down because they consumed water, using up to 150 litres of water, per tree per day. Clearing of these invasive Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 38 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned the Western Cape (UWC); • Leliefontein Methodist Church; and • Agri- Kameelkrans Farmers Union. trees reduced the biodiversity as they out-competed indigenous wetland vegetation for sunlight and space, reduced water supply for communal use, and damaged infrastructure such as fencing and water channels. As a result, nine indigenous wetland plant species, including the arum lilies, became locally extinct. The wetland lost its ability to provide valuable ecosystem services to the community. Populus trees were selectively cut down mainly to prevent infrastructure damage and soil erosion. A weir with an outlet leading to the wetland was built to create a pool of fresh water. The top section of the historic boreholes was rehabilitated with sandstone and was waterproofed to prevent leaking. further land use impacts. Removing the alien Populus trees was no easy task and follow-ups were necessary to ensure they did not re- grow. trees released more water for use by wetland plants and animal species, as well as the community. Locals also witnessed an increase in invertebrate and bird species after the wetland had been rehabilitated; and • The greatest lesson from the initiative is that the success rate of community initiatives is largely determined by how well the people involved work together. The removal of the alien Populus trees and rehabilitating the wetland resulted in education, awareness raising, plant propagation and enhancing recreational activities. These interventions contributed to improved ecosystem services that strengthened resilience to climate change. 8. • DFFE WfWet. The Manalana wetland system consists of a small unchannelled valley bottom wetland unit at the head of the system and a long and narrow channelled valley bottom wetland unit of varying width and varying channel dimensions. The wetland system has been affected by gully erosion and headcut migration, with both Hydrogeomorphic The wetland is located within the village of Craigieburn in the Bushbuckridge Local Municipality, Mpumalanga Province. Deactivation of headcut and gully erosion. The rehabilitation activities started in 2006 and were completed in 2007. The provisioning services that were examined upstream of the structures included crop production, reeds for harvesting, grazing for cattle, water for livestock and water for domestic purposes. The benefits upstream of the structures were found to be substantial, while the benefits Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 39 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned classification system (HGM) units being affected by gully erosion at their downstream end. Considering the importance of the wetland system to local livelihoods, and the fact that the wetland and its provisioning goods and services were under considerable threat from headcut advancement or migration, and gully erosion, two erosion control structures were established to deactivate the active headcuts. downstream were smaller by comparison. 9. • Working for Wetlands (WfWet), SANBI & DFFE Combines engineering solutions (e.g., erosion control, rewetting) with community training and awareness programs. Palmiet fens, Highveld peatlands, and Eastern Cape swamp forests. Rehabilitate 50% degraded wetlands; create jobs; integrate poverty alleviation with conservation Active since 2004; 15,000+ jobs created (2004-2013); 40% of projects target peatlands (ongoing) • Proactive measures prevent degradation more cost- effectively than remedial fixes. • Training locals as custodians ensures sustainability. 10. • Nuwejaars Wetlands SMA (25 landowners & communities Invasive alien species removal, ecological corridors, sustainable farming, wildlife reintroduction. Agulhas Plain, Overberg (460 km²). Balance biodiversity conservation with agriculture; restore extinct species habitats. Active since 2002; 230+ bird species recorded; buffalo/hippo reintroduced. • Community landownership drives long-term commitment . • Economic incentives (e.g., ecotourism) aid conservation funding. 11. • DFFE WfW and WfWet. Krom River wetlands rehabilitation initiative - it was estimated that half of the wetlands were lost because of infestation by alien vegetation and destructive human activities such as The Krom River wetlands are located in the eastern part of the Langkloof of To rehabilitate wetlands and eradicate AIPs. The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2000, and the initiative is still ongoing. The initiative is ongoing. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 40 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned large-scale cultivation on floodplains. The focus of the initiative was to rehabilitate wetlands and eradicate AIPs. Since 2001, 10 large structures have been built to combat erosion that threatened the remaining large, intact wetlands. the Eastern Cape. • In 2006, the Krom River experienced its most severe floods since measurements began in 1938, resulting in heavy loss of life and property. The remaining wetlands played a key role in managing the floods, slowing the velocity and destructive potential of the floodwaters, and trapping sediment. The structures that were put in place accomplished their purpose, and the two main wetland basins emerged from the floods largely unscathed. 12. • DFFE WfWet, in partnership with the City of Tshwane municipality; and • Global Wetland Watch (GWW) with the South African Government. Rietvlei wetland system rehabilitation initiative - the wetlands were heavily eroded and desiccated, having been drained for cultivation and peat mining before the area was proclaimed a nature reserve. In recent years, the Rietvlei Dam became severely overloaded with nutrients and other pollutants due to the highly urbanised catchment receiving increased volumes of treated domestic sewage and industrial effluent. In 2000, the wetlands upstream of the dam were The wetland system is situated immediately upstream of the Rietvlei Dam within the Rietvlei Nature Reserve just outside the capital city of Pretoria, Gauteng. • Rehabilita te wetlands upstream of the dam to improve their ability to purify the water flowing into the • The rehabilitation activities started in 2000, and the initiative is still ongoing; and • Pilot phase (2025) Global portal launch in 2026. • Lessons extracted from the monitoring results is that the rehabilitated wetlands are improving the quality of water flowing into the dam with ammonia, nitrates, fluoride and sulphate levels down compared to the section upstream of the wetlands. This reduction in pollutants entering the dam is contributing to reduced algal growth, thereby reducing the Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 41 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned rehabilitated to improve their ability to purify the water flowing into the dam. Interventions included gabions, concrete and earthen structures to control erosion, rewetting the organic soils to increase the retention time of water; and ensure even distribution of flow across the wetlands. Satellite mapping of wetland health, workshops for data integration, and field trials of restoration techniques. Rietvlei Dam; and • Develop high- resolution wetland inventory; prioritize rehabilita tion sites; improve water quality in urban- adjacent wetlands. costs of treating the water for human consumption. • 10m-resolution annual data meets national needs. • Urbanization and invasive species require satellite-based monitoring. 14 • Kgaswane Nature Reserve Management. Protection of groundwater- dependent peatlands; crack-and- seep hydrological system conservation. Magaliesberg foothills (Ramsar Site). Safeguard freshwater for communities; mitigate mining impacts; promote responsible mineral extraction. Ongoing; mining pressures observed. • Mining regulations must enforce post-operation restoration. • Geological features dictate wetland resilience. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 42 3.3.3 Estuaries Anthropogenic (human-induced) activities are the main causes of estuarine impacts. These activities, whether direct or indirect, are increasingly impacting estuaries and their ability to sustain productivity and associated essential ecosystem services. Direct anthropogenic pressures can be grouped broadly into five major categories that have been identified as follows: • Water resource use, i.e., hydrological alterations - flow modification patterns due to weirs, dams, and excessive water abstractions not only from surface resources but also from groundwater; • Land-use, i.e., anthropogenic alterations such as canalisation, riparian infrastructure development, and land infilling; • Exploitation of living resources, i.e., Over-exploitation of fish and invertebrates; • Pollution, i.e., point [e.g., Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs)] and diffuse sources (e.g., runoff); • Artificial breaching, i.e., manipulation of estuary mouths; and • Alien vegetation, i.e., both terrestrial species in the riparian zone, as well as aquatic aliens. Indirect pressures largely relate to biological invasions by plants and animals, such as AIS, which poses a significant threat. The increasing trend of aquatic alien vegetation in many estuaries is closely linked to water quality and catchment problems. Early detection is important as shown in the successful removal of the highly invasive cord grass Spartina alterniflora in the Groot/Great Brak Estuary. Additionally, climate change is another impact that causes significant changes in the ecosystem structure and function and results in the loss of biodiversity. In the Verlorenvlei Estuary a reduction in open water through a combination of drought and over abstraction of groundwater resulted in the first ever record of acid soils, which in turn lead to a loss of ecosystem health. Extensive research was undertaken by the iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority with the support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to find a long-term solution to rejoin the St Lucia system that was artificially separated from the uMfolozi River. As part of the rehabilitation interventions to address the hydrological and ecological issues, the uMfolozi River was rejoined to Lake St Lucia in July 2012. The natural processes of the system were reinstated, and the system allowed the opening and closing of the estuary to the sea naturally. Major progress has been achieved in restoring the health of St Lucia, South Africa’s flagship estuary and one of the most important nurseries for marine fish, based on a new management approach informed by science. (the initiative is still ongoing). Table 5 provides an overview of the initiatives implemented on the systems listed below and their respective outcomes: 1. Rietvlei Estuary, Gauteng; 2025 – ongoing; 2. Orus Estuary, Western Cape: 2024 – ongoing; 3. uThukela, Berg: 2020 – ongoing; 4. Hartenbos Estuary, Western Cape: 2016 – ongoing; 5. St Lucia system, Kwazulu-Natal: 2012 – ongoing; 6. Eerste River Estuary, Western Cape: 2011 – ongoing; 7. Hout Bay River Estuary, Western Cape: 2011 – ongoing; 8. Lourens River Estuary, Western Cape: 2011 – ongoing; 9. Silvermine River Estuary, Western Cape: 2011 – ongoing; 10. Sir Lowry’s Pass River Estuary, Western Cape: 2011 – ongoing; 11. Zeekoevlei River Estuary, Western Cape: 2011 – ongoing; 12. Diep River Estuary mouth, Western Cape: 2011 – ongoing; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 43 13. Zandvlei Estuary mouth, Western Cape: 2011– ongoing; 14. Swart Estuary, Eastern Cape: 2009 – ongoing; 15. Berg Estuary, Western Cape: 2010 – ongoing; 16. Agulhas Plain (Overberg): 2002 – ongoing; and 17. Great/Groot River Estuary, Western Cape: 1990 – ongoing; Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 44 Table 5: Estuaries rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned 1. • GWW Satellite mapping of estuary health: Change detection Rietvlei (Pretoria); Breede Estuary. • Develop national estuary inventory; track urbanizati on impacts. Pilot launched in 2025; full implementation by 2026. • 10m resolution data detects pollution plumes. • Predicts erosion hotspots. 2. • Overstrand Local Municipality; • Anchor Environmental Consultants (Pty) Ltd; • Western Cape DEA&DP; • CapeNature; • The Breede- Olifants Catchment Management Agency; and • The Western Cape Department of Agriculture. The Onrus River and Estuary are prone to flooding. The flood event of September 2023 resulted in destructive erosion of an upstream peat wetland. This flooding led to the deposition of sediment in the lower river and estuary, with the estuarine bed level being raised by over three meters in places. In its current state, the estuary has no flood attenuation potential, and any subsequent flood/ heavy rainfall events are likely to put the lives of the residents of the nearby villages, as well as their properties, at risk. The surrounding terrestrial environment to the river and estuary is also heavily impacted by alien invasive plants. Recent satellite imagery suggests that the estuarine functional zone is almost completely covered with alien invasive plants, mostly tree, with these species The estuary located within the Onrus River catchment (G40H), Cape Town, Western Cape. • To address the identified impacts, with the primary strategies being to conduct bulk dredging (sediment removal) to clear the estuary of the accumulat ed material. To address the identified impacts, the following plans were developed: • Maintenance Management Plan (MMP) to facilitate the management of sedimentation accumulation in the lower reaches of the river and estuary. • Comprehensive dredging, dewatering, and sediment reuse plan to enable sediment to be strategically removed from the estuary in a manner which maximises ecological and anthropogenic benefits, whilst minimising unnecessary environmental impacts. The initiative is ongoing. The MMP including the dredging, dewatering, and sediment reuse plan are yet to be implemented by Overstrand Local Municipality. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 45 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned outcompeting indigenous vegetation, and increasing rates of soil erosion. 3. • SANBI Working for Estuaries. Mangrove restoration, sediment control, and fish habitat rehabilitation. Eight Priority estuaries (e.g., uThukela, Berg). • Rebuild nursery habitats for fish; sequester blue carbon. • 15 sites restored (2020– 2025); and • 120 ha of mangroves replanted. • Community-led patrols reduce illegal gill-netting. • Sand mining increases erosion by 300%. 4. • Mossel Bay Municipality; • Anchor Environmental Consultants (Pty) Ltd; • Cape Nature; • Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (DEA&DP); and • DWS. The Hartenbos Estuary is classified as a temporarily open/closed estuary. It is a small estuary with a relatively large floodplain and covers in total approximately 268ha. The estuary ranks 74 th of all South African estuaries in terms of its overall conservation importance and can be considered as moderately important for estuarine biodiversity on a national scale. It is an important recreational area along the Cape south coast, and the small resident population of Hartenbos is bolstered considerably during holiday periods. However, the estuary faces pressures from reduced freshwater inflow due to the upstream Hartebeeskuil Dam, increasing coastal development and tourism activities and deteriorating water quality. The channel and mouth dynamics of the estuary have been strongly The estuary located within the Breede- Gouritz Catchment Management Area, Cape Town, Western Cape. • To manage the estuary such that water quality is improved to supports a healthy and functionin g ecosystem , which contribute s towards economic growth and facilitates improved • To address the identified impacts, the Estuary Management Plan was developed for a period of 2016 to 2021. This plan has since lapsed, and Mossel Bay Municipality has filed a request for the extension of the plan. • Hartenbos wetlands project - construction of floating wetlands is still in the planning process. The initiative is ongoing. Mossel Bay Municipality has filed a request for the extension of the Estuary Management Plan. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 46 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned influenced by anthropogenic developments in the catchment. Currently, artificial breaching of the estuary mouth by the Mossel Bay Municipality occurs most frequently in response to severe water quality deterioration in summer and associated excessive algae growth when the water becomes stagnant during closed mouth conditions. Reportedly, concerned residents and holiday makers also occasionally open the estuary illegally for the same reason. The estuary is also dug open illegally by bait harvesters to reduce water levels and allow easy access to the burrowing sand prawns. recreation al use. 5. • iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, with the support of the GEF. Rehabilitation of Lake St Lucia - the estuary is a dominant feature of the World Heritage Site, iSimangaliso Wetland Park, and is one of the country’s most significant estuaries from a biodiversity point of view. For about six decades, the uMfolozi River, which is the largest river catchment feeding Lake St Lucia, was separated from it and this resulted in the loss of fresh water. The system also lost an important driving force that interacted with the sea to open and close the mouth and remove sediments. Coupled with this human interference, a drought resulted in the estuary mouth remaining closed Lake St Lucia, the largest estuary in the country, is located in the southern region of iSimangaliso Wetland Park, North coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Rehabilitation of the natural ecological processes of the estuarine system by relinking the river and estuary. The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2012, and the initiative is ongoing with extensive research and long- term solutions. • An Invasive Species and Control Plan (2017- 2021) was implemented focusing on priority areas. • Fish and certain plants continue to be harvested. Monitoring of these activities is in place. • Following the rejoining of uMfolozi River with Lake St Lucia in July 2012, the natural processes were reinstated, and the system was allowed to open and close to the sea naturally. The mouth opening allowed for the migration of fish and prawn species using the Lake system as a nursery. • Significant achievements have been made to date with regards to the participation of local communities in decision-making and the implementation of programmes that deliver Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 47 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned to the sea for 10 years, ending with September 2012. Direct abstraction from tributary rivers and indirect abstraction of the groundwater prevented the freshwater volumes from reaching the estuary. Water quality in tributary rivers and several alien plant species around the system were a concern. As part of the rehabilitation interventions to address the hydrological and ecological issues, the uMfolozi River was rejoined to Lake St Lucia in July 2012, leading to an open mouth for the Lake St Lucia system. In addition, an alien species control plan was implemented. • Monitoring of biotic and abiotic components is ongoing. Monitoring of physical and chemical parameters has improved with the implementation of an automatic electronic data gathering and storage application. This has allowed the Management Authority to assess the impact of the rehabilitation initiative. Monitoring in the marine environment includes line fish, surf-zone fish, turtles, Coelacanth, whale shark and bull shark populations. • Phase 3 (2023–2027); 70% salinity stability achieved. tangible benefits to local communities. • The national and provincial conservation and environmental laws and regulations are enforced by staff of the Management Authority stationed at strategic locations within the World Heritage site. • Budget provision is made annually to the iSimangaliso Wetland Authority from the National and Provincial Governments. The Management Authority continues to obtain funding for rehabilitation, restoration and re-development, including the implementation of substantial local economic development programmes. • In-house training of staff is ongoing, and programmes are in place for staff to advance in their skills and/or qualifications. • Over 5200 learners visit the Park annually as part of the environmental education programme, while 112 academic achievers have been supported thus far in tertiary education as they study in fields relevant to the Park’s management. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 48 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned • Currently, 130 research projects are being undertaken by researchers and postgraduate students from both South Africa and other countries. Research is approved based on its contribution to the management of the site, and to science in general. Research findings are fed into management decisions. The iSimangaliso Authority also commissions research required to assist with the management of the site. • River reconnection revives prawn/fish stocks. 6. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal and Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. The Eerste River Estuary mouth forms at the western boundary of the Helderberg Marine Protected Area (MPA). It comprises a ponding area with a highly mobile estuary mouth. The mouth is not canalised or fixed and is highly influenced by the prevailing coastal dynamics of a wind- driven sand system, as well as altered flow due to urban and farming impacts on the greater catchment area. Although there are no residential properties located near the estuary, the Macassar WWTW is located adjacent to the back ponding area and discharges its final treated effluent directly into the estuary. The estuary meets the ocean at Macassar Beach on the False Bay coastline, Western Cape. (Annexure C) Manage the estuary and catchment to reduce and minimise urban pollutants; and where possible allow free and natural movement of the estuary mouth; manage alien invasive species; and continuously A management plan has not yet been developed; however, management objectives were developed with each objective having a specific operational protocol. • The initiative is ongoing. The management plan is yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. • The City of Cape Town does monitor the estuary on a monthly basis. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 49 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned The Eerste River is joined by the Kuils River approximately 4km upstream of the estuary and receives treated effluent from a number of WWTWs located in the Kuils River catchment area. The flow of the river at the mouth is persistent, as a net seawards flow. This is partly due to the wastewater discharge contribution, which has the effect of keeping the mouth generally open. Since this system has a significant component of treated sewage effluent, the natural estuarine characteristics have been permanently altered. work towards achieving high standards of water quality and habitat. 7. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal and Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. The Hout Bay River Estuary is an intermittently open system that opens when the Hout Bay River suddenly floods but generally closes during summer months. The reduction in natural flows is due to retention of water in upper catchment dams, increase in urban stormwater flows, urban development, bank stabilisation failures and flood levees, sedimentation, litter from informal settlements, and stormwater discharges all impact the estuary and its contributing river. This has led to alterations in the estuary’s condition, water quality and depth. The estuary connects with the ocean at Hout Bay Beach, Western Cape. (Annexure D) Manage the estuary and catchment to reduce and minimise urban pollutants; and where possible allow free and natural movement of the estuary mouth; manage AIS; and continuously work towards A management plan has not yet been developed; however, management objectives were developed with each objective having a specific operational protocol. • The initiative is ongoing. • A management and rehabilitation plan for the Hout Bay Dunes were compiled, which point to sand accumulation on Hout Bay Beach contributing to the unpredictable meandering of the river mouth. However, the management plan including the rehabilitation plan for the dunes are yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 50 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned The estuary is no longer in its natural state and tends to meander, effectively compromising efforts for dune rehabilitation. There are several developments below the 1:50 flood line of the Hout Bay River exposed to the effects of coastal dynamics, especially erosion. achieving high standards of water quality and habitat. 8. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal and Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. The Lourens River was declared a Protected Natural Environment (PNE) in 1997 and is the only river in South Africa that is a declared PNE. The river originates in the Hottentots Holland Mountains, flows through Somerset West and discharges to the sea at the Strand Beach. The Estuary of the Lourens River also defines the Helderberg MPA eastern boundary and as such, must be considered a core component to the marine conservation objectives of the MPA. The estuary is connected to the sea by means of a small western overflow channel. The estuary naturally tends to be saline during summer and becomes less saline during periods of high rainfall. The estuary has been The estuary connects with the ocean at Strand Beach 21 , Western Cape. (Annexure E) Manage the estuary and catchment to reduce and minimise urban pollutants; and where possible allow free and natural movement of the estuary mouth; manage alien invasive species; and continuously work towards achieving high A management plan was developed for the estuary in 2011 (for a period of 2011 to 2015), however, the project is ongoing. The initiative is ongoing. The management plan is yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. 21 The Strand Beach Road crosses the estuary approximately 100m from the high-water mark of the sea, on the south of Beach Road. The estuary is abutted by the Lourens River Pump Station to the west and a recreational area to the east. North of Beach Road the estuary is abutted by the Strand Golf Course to the West and the residential properties to the east. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 51 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned impacted by the following urban impacts: • Agricultural and stormwater runoff; • Bank stabilisation failures; • Sewage pump station failures; • Alien fish; and • Changes in runoff due to urbanisation and surface hardening. Consequently, the above impacts led to the decrease in the estuary’s water quality. The overall condition of the river was generally regarded as fair. standards of water quality and habitat. 9. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal and Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. The Silvermine River Estuary is a small, confined estuary that extends across a road and rail bridges. It provides vital connectivity between the river and the coastline. The mouth of the estuary is generally closed during the dry season 22 and occasionally open during winter months. The estuary’s ability to effectively function as an ecological corridor has been threatened by rubble within the river channel and beneath the bridges, informal dwelling under the bridge, stormwater drainage, and overflows The estuary is located at the north-eastern corner of Fish Hoek Bay’s, Western Cape. (Annexure F) Manage the estuary and catchment to reduce and minimise urban pollutants; and where possible allow free and natural movement of the estuary mouth; manage alien A management plan was developed for the estuary in 2011 (for period of 2011 to 2015), however, the project is ongoing. The initiative is ongoing. The management plan is yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. 22 The Western Cape (coastal area as opposed to inland areas) of South Africa experiences a Mediterranean climate, with a distinct dry summer and a wet winter. Most of the region's rainfall occurs from June to September, driven by stormy cold fronts from the Atlantic. Conversely, December through March is a very dry period. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 52 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned from the sewage pump station. The estuary is a focal point on the beach for recreational activities, however human beings encountering the estuary’s water expose themselves to possible health risks as the water quality of the estuary is poor due to stagnation of the water. invasive species; and continuously work towards achieving high standards of water quality and habitat. 10. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal and Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. Sir Lowry’s Pass River originates on the slopes of the Hottentots Holland mountains. Most of the lower part of the river is contained between earth banks stabilised by vegetation and partially canalised in places. The flow in the lower channel is sporadic consisting almost entirely of runoff from the local residential area. An artificial diversion channel splits the river at Gordon’s Bay WWTW and delivers the bulk of the river flows and treated effluent from the WWTW to the sea at a location west of Harbour Island. Due to this significant change in the hydrology of the original river, few of the original estuarine characteristics remain. The river mouth thus opens only periodically depending on the season. The portion of the river flowing in the historic channel is fair from a water quality The estuary 23 is located on the western side Gordon’s Bay, Western Cape. (Annexure G) Manage the estuary and catchment to reduce and minimise urban pollutants; and where possible allow free and natural movement of the estuary mouth; manage alien invasive species; and continuously work towards achieving high standards of water quality and habitat. A management plan was developed for the estuary in 2011 (for period 2011 to 2015), however, the project is ongoing. The initiative is ongoing. The management plan is yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. 23 The estuary is confined by Hendon Park Resort to the west, Beach Road Bridge to the north, and Hendon Park recreational braai area to the east. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 53 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned perspective, but moderately to highly impacted in terms of ecological functioning. Water quality in the artificial diversion canal is impacted by the discharge of final effluent from the WWTW. 11. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal and Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. The Zeekoevlei River Estuary is an outlet of the Zeekoevlei Catchment drainage area. The outlet channel extends from the Zeekoevlei weir to the sea for approximately 3km. The channel receives final sewage effluent from the Cape Flats WWTW and, as such, it forms an important component of the City’s urban drainage system. The outlet channel is surrounded by City infrastructure - the Coastal Park landfill site to the north and the Cape Flats WWTW to the east. In addition, Baden Powell – a major east-west transport artery - crosses the Zeekoevlei outlet channel a short distance upstream of its entry point to the sea. The Zeekoevlei Catchment and its associated aquatic ecosystems have over many decades become significantly impacted and nutrient enriched and unfortunately do not support any endemic or threatened species. The Zeekoevlei River mouth is subject to considerable movement. While interventions were implemented in The estuary is located at the outlet of the Zeekoevlei Catchment drainage area which encompasses the Big and Little Lotus Rivers and Zeekoevlei in the Western Cape. (Annexure H) Manage the estuary and catchment to reduce and minimise urban pollutants; and where possible allow free and natural movement of the estuary mouth; manage alien invasive species; and continuously work towards achieving high standards of water quality and habitat. A management plan was developed for the estuary in 2011 (for period 2011 to 2015), however, the project is ongoing. The initiative is ongoing. The management plan is yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 54 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned the past to prevent the eastward migration of the river mouth, the river is still subject to significant westward migration. This migration is not limited to the east-west plain but may also move in a northerly direction due to erosion. 12. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal & Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. The Diep River Estuary is considered the most important area for waterbirds in the region and is recognised as an Important Bird Area by Birdlife International. It is also an important recreational site and supports some bait collecting activities. The system comprises of the Rietvlei wetland and the Milnerton lagoon. The developments near the estuary continued to encroach on the margins of the estuary, the hydrodynamics of the system were altered, water quality was seriously deteriorated, and most of the area was invaded by several alien and indigenous species. The estuary is located about 65km south- west towards Cape Town, Western Cape. (Annexure I) To manage the estuary, Rietvlei wetland, the Milnerton Lagoon, and their environment in a manner that is sustainable, and compatible with the conservation of an ecosystem of international significance for biological diversity. The Estuarine Management Plan has been approved for implementation in the Western Cape. It outlines the broad management actions, which will improve/sustain the health of the estuary in the long-term. The initiative is ongoing. The management plan is yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. 13. • City of Cape Town; • Cape Nature; • The Coastal and The Zandvlei catchment is relatively small and comprises several rivers and streams (i.e., Little Princess Vlei stream, Westlake stream, Keyser River, Langvlei canal and Sand River canal). The rivers converge on the The estuary is located on the boundaries of the City of Cape Town and is bordered by Manage the estuary and environment, including the catchment in a balanced The Estuarine Management Plan has been approved for implementation in the Western Cape. It outlines the broad management actions, which will improve/sustain The initiative is ongoing. The management plan is yet to be implemented by the City of Cape Town. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 55 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned Environmental Consulting; and • C.A.P.E Programme. Zandvlei Estuary with the Keyser River and Westlake stream entering the estuary through an extensive reed bed on the north-western margin. The estuary system also includes a wetland area that covers 60ha, the main body of a vlei of about 56ha and a 31ha marina along the eastern margin. Over the years, there have been numerous changes to the physical structure of the estuary and the influent rivers. These have led to changes in the volumes and quality of water and associated sediments flowing into the estuary (both from the rivers and sea) as well as the biological communities. Given the extent of the development in the catchment and immediate surroundings to the estuary, including physical presence of the marina, roads, railway bridge, the system will never function as a complete natural system again. Muizenberg Mountain, Silvermine Plateau, Constantiaberg Cecilia Ridge, Wynberg Hill and a watershed along the eastern boundary, Western Cape. (Annexure J) manner that promotes the rehabilitation and conservation of its biodiversity values; mitigate flooding of adjacent properties; and maintain the estuary for its suitability for recreation and education. the health of the estuary in the long-term. 14. • Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme; and • Enviro-Fish Africa (Pty) Ltd The Swartkops Estuary is a medium- large, permanently open estuary which is fed by two major river systems, namely the Swartkops River and its largest tributary, the Elands River. Two tributaries of the Elands River are impounded, and the Groendal Dam is located on the Swartkops River approximately 35 km from the estuary. These obstructions The estuary is located north of Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape. To investigate the historical and current situation both on the estuary to inform the development of the Estuarine A situation assessment study was undertaken in 2009 to form the basis of the Estuarine Management Plan. The initiative is ongoing. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 56 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned are thought to hold back in the region of 16% of the mean annual rainfall but reduce freshwater inflow by approximately five percent. The townships of Kwazakele and Motherwell are located further from the estuary but have an indirect effect on the system through pollution. Industrial activities are a major land-use within the immediate estuarine area and include saltpans, sewage works, sand/clay mining, brickworks, a power station, motor industry and wool industry, tanneries, extractive/beneficiation processes, aquaculture and railway yards and depots, with only limited agriculture taking place. Management Plan. 15. • C.A.P.E Programme.; • Cape Nature; • Anchor Environmental Consultants (Pty) Ltd; • DFFE; and • SANBI. The Berg Estuary is one of the largest permanently open estuaries in the west coast, with a total area of 61km 2 . It currently receives some 65% of the natural mean annual runoff. While this does not affect mouth condition, since the mouth of the estuary has been stabilised, reduction in flow has had a considerable impact on water quality, both due to reduced ability to dilute pollution and due to the increase in polluted return flows because of use of the water in irrigation. The reduced flows have probably also altered the physical The estuary is located in the Overstrand Municipality, Western Cape. • Improvem ent of water quality; • Improvem ent of the quantity of freshwater inflows; • Removal of significant obstructio • The Estuarine Management Plan was developed in 2010 with the four focal areas outline in the column for objectives. • Designated 28th Ramsar Site (2022). • 60% reduction in sewage inflows. • The initiative is ongoing. • Saltmarsh recovery is critical for migratory birds - 250+ bird species. • Industrial effluent requires real- time sensors. • Estuaries require integrated land-sea governance. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 57 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned habitat of the estuary in that the depth and profile may have changed and have affected the extent of flooding on the floodplain areas surrounding the estuary. The reduction in flows have resulted in considerable changes to the biota. Pollution control, Ramsar-compliant management, and bird monitoring. ns to flow; and • Eliminatio n of illegal fishing activity (gill netting). • Protect 127 waterbird species; maintain estuarine functions (worth R4.2bn/ye a) • Maintain estuarine functions. 16. • Nuwejaars Wetlands SMA Sustainable farming, hippo/buffalo reintroduction, erosion barriers. Agulhas Plain (Overberg). • Balance agriculture with biodiversit y; rebuild coastal lake systems. • Active since 2002; 25 landowners engaged. • Livestock exclusion zones improve water clarity. • Wildlife corridors reduce human- wildlife conflict. 17. • DWS The Groot/Great Brak Estuary lies about midway between the towns of George and Mossel Bay. When the Wolwedans Dam was built upstream The estuary is located George and Mossel Bay • Maintain the ecosystem as closely • The DWS developed a water release or Estuarine Management Plan (date not disclosed) The initiative is ongoing. There are times when elevated water levels pose a flood risk when there’s rainfall in the catchment and the dam is Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 58 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned in the Great Brak River, the estuary of was affected as follows: • The natural freshwater flow to the estuary was reduced, which changed the way in which the estuary functions naturally; • The ecological environment of the estuary changed; • The quality of the water in the estuary changed; and • The socio-economic character of the estuary and its surroundings are changed. The artificial breaching of the estuary commenced in the 19 th century to control floods and high estuary water levels. in Cape Town, Western Cape. as possible to the current state. • Maintain the recreation al value and potential of the estuary, especially during peak visitor periods. that would set out the best way in which the water reserved in the dam every year for the estuary should be used so that there would be as little change as possible to the estuarine environment. • The estuary is artificially breached for ecological reasons between September to November every year. spilling. This scenario would necessitate an emergency breach. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 59 3.3.4 Lakes and Dams The South African dams and water reservoirs are impacted by sedimentation, mineralisation/salinisation, nutrient enrichment (at an excessive rate leads to eutrophication) and acid mine drainage (AMD). These impacts are either related to natural processes or anthropogenic activities. In addition, the key pressures on freshwater lakes are caused by alterations to the hydrological regime, water pollution, habitat modification, invasive species, and climate change. A great deal of research and concerted efforts were undertaken by various institutions to identify the impacts and implement a wide range of rehabilitation interventions. The Hartbeespoort Dam Integrated Biological Remediation Programme (HDRP) is an example of an intervention that was implemented from 2006 to 2013 to explore a wide variety of short-term and long-term methods, as well as techniques to control the level of eutrophication in the dam. The following interventions have been implemented to date (DWAF, 2007): • Control and remove algae - floating booms 24 (see Annexure K for images) were used to assist with the surface movement concentration and physical removal (pumping out) of algae from the water to be composted. Four to five positions for boom placement have been identified, one of which has already been placed successfully at the dam wall as a prototype. Compost 25 is produced from the harvested algae and hyacinth. • Control and remove water hyacinths - similarly to algae, water hyacinths are removed from the water by concentrating the movement of water plants on the dam. Hyacinths may possibly be used as plant material in the floating wetlands (mesocosms) which are harvested on a regular basis. • Shoreline vegetation - is important to improve the biodiversity of the dam. It contributes to the control of water pollution, prevents benthic erosion, serves as a spawning substrate for fish and creates micro habitats for fish and invertebrates. • Floating wetlands - floating islands of preferably indigenous water plants are considered an important extension of shoreline vegetation as they provide the capacity for nutrient removal from surface water. They also serve as a habitat for aquatic organisms and for fish to survive and grow. This artificial safe habitat for zooplankton contributes to increasing the size and diversity of its population since it feeds on algae. The floating wetlands can therefore form an important part of the food-web structure. • Sediment removal - significant volumes of nutrients are captured in the organic and inorganic layers of incoming sediment 26 in the dam basin. The treatment of water flowing into the dam hardly changes the appearance of the water unless sediment can be cleared of its high nutrient levels. • Fisheries management and monitoring - management, coordination and monitoring of the commercial fisheries 27 in the dam, including the monitoring of the impact the fisheries have on the fish community. The undesirable fish species are removed by netting to achieve the 24 Floating booms, (although similar to LG Sonic, MPC-Buo technology in shape & structure), is an aquatic technology used to concentrate cyanobacteria so it can be pumped out and composted. On the other hand, a LG Sonic, MPC-Buoy is an aquatic technology that uses ultrasound waves to control algae (see Annexure K for images). 25 Compost, a high source of protein for fish and chicken is used for breeding of earthworms. The composting combined with the removed sediment will produce a high-quality soil conditioner. 26 Sediments removed combined with compost are re-used economically and in an environmentally safe manner for rehabilitation of depleted soil including for other household, agriculture or mining purposes. 27 Commercial fisheries involve catching fish and other seafood for profit. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 60 desired trophic structure, and a commercial fishery was developed by harvesting the dam on a sustainable basis for the community to benefit from this additional protein source. Phase 1 of the HDRP achieved many successes which include the large-scale removal of hyacinth and other alien plants. Phase 2 of the HDRP is planned for the near future and will be implemented with all lessons learned from Phase 1 . Table 6 provides overview of other lakes and dams rehabilitation interventions implemented on the systems listed below and their respective outcomes: 1. Rehabilitation of the Vlakfontein Canal, Mpumalanga: 2024 – ongoing; 2. Zeekoevlei Lake, Western Cape: 2024 – ongoing; 3. National Siltation Management Strategy for Dams in South Africa (NatSilt): 2021 – ongoing; 4. Solar-Powered Reservoir Circulator / Solar Bees, Gauteng, Rietvlei, Pretoria: 2018 – ongoing no completion date as this was a pilot study; and 5. Hartbeespoort Dam Integrated Biological Remediation Programme (HDRP), North-West: Phase 1 started in 2006 – 2013. Phase 2 is planned for the near future. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 61 Table 6: Lakes and Dams rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned 1. • City of Cape Town. The Zeekoevlei Lake is a designated Ramsar site – one of the highest levels of conservation that can be accorded internationally to wetlands. It is also part of an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area. This 250ha coastal lake is affected by a high level of organic pollutants, largely resulting from urban impacts such as sewage and agricultural runoff and upstream pollution from the Big and Little Lotus Rivers. It has a long history of human impact over the past century, and large volumes of organic sediments have accumulated in the lake over several decades, resulting in frequent algal blooms, periodic fish kill events, and unpleasant odours. The City of Cape Town intends to dredge the Zeekoevlei, removing up to 750 000 m 3 of the accumulated organic The lake is located in the False Bay Nature Reserve, Cape Town. • Reduce algal blooms; • Reduce the frequency of lake closures for existing recreation al uses; • Improve aquatic ecosystem conditions and habitat complexity , especially on the lakebed; • Reduce the foul odour of the lake; • Improve the lake’s aesthetics; • Removal pollutants • The City of Cape Town was granted environmental authorisation by the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment in April 2024, based on an environmental impact assessment process. • The City also received water use authorisation from the Department of Water and Sanitation in 2023. • The initiative is estimated to take 20 months, with a start date to be determined based on logistical aspects. The initiative is ongoing, and the dredging activities are yet to be implemented by the Citty. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 62 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned matter. The material targeted for dredging is concentrated in two areas of the lake: Home Bay (in the west, north of the Peninsula) and Stormy Bay (in the south). and organic sediment accumulati on; and • Reduce the rate of reedbed expansion. 2. • DWS. Rehabilitation of the Vlakfontein Canal – the canal has outlived its design life of 25 years and needed major rehabilitation throughout its whole length of 37.1km. The purpose of the canal is to transport raw water pumped from the Grootdraai Dam at Standerton, Mpumalanga over 37.1km to the Grootfontein Pump Station, where water is discharged into the canal just north of Standerton. The pumped water is piped to the Knoppiesfontein Diversion Tank where it splits. The two pipelines then supply Bossiespruit Dam for private energy and chemical company Sasol, and Trichardsfontein Dam for state electricity company Eskom. The rehabilitation process was Grootdraai Dam at Standerton, Mpumalanga. To rehabilitate sections of the canal in a prioritised way to mitigate the risk of failure. Potential failure of the canal could result in substantial financial losses for strategic stakeholders. The initiative commenced in October 2010 and is ongoing. It should be noted that there will be continuous operation and maintenance of the canal. • To date, the following rehabilitation activities have been undertaken on the canal: o All the fill sections have been re-lined; o Canal lining (raising of walls), which is ongoing; and o Formwork and Steel. • The initiative is ongoing with planned continuous operation and maintenance of the canal. • Rehabilitation of the canal is dependent on Vaal River Eastern Sub-system Augmentation Project (VRESAP) being operational and reliable to supply Sasol and Eskom with raw water for periods (6 weeks at a time) while a section of the canal is rehabilitated. This has been problematic to date. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 63 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned divided into two Phases: Phase 1 (Fill Sections) and Phase 2 (Cut Sections). The high priority of construction was given to the fill sections, as it was identified as a high-risk area which is more prone to canal failure. The fill section adds up to 8.1km of the canal’s full length of 37.1km, while the remaining sections of the canal would be rehabilitated in order of the priority assigned to them. 3. • WRC in collaboration with the DWS and Zutari (Pty) Ltd – Consultants. National Siltation Management Strategy for Dams in South Africa (NatSilt) WRC - this programme aims to produce tools and know-how to arrest the situation and mitigate against future increases in siltation through the deployment of social, economic, technological, engineering and management tools and systems; and to control the impact of sedimentation. The programme also aims to expand the footprint of a dam to include all upstream activities, to improve the understanding of the current South Africa. Develop a strategy for the control and management of dam siltation in South Africa. The initiative commenced in 2021 and is ongoing. • To date, the following deliverables have been completed: o Task 1: Project inception; o Task 2: Literature review; o Task 3: Dam storage classification); o Task 4: Dam operations model): and o Task 5: Institutional and finance guidelines. The initiative is ongoing. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 64 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned status quo of dam sedimentation in the country and to develop support tools for the cross-departmental co- ordination of activities to combat dam sedimentation. • The next step of the initiative is to pilot-test the efficacy and veracity of the developed models and tools. o The Vortex Settling Basin (VSB) Technology Demonstration Handover Event is planned for 12 June 2025. The demonstration of the VSB technology will take place at the Thukela River abstraction works in Middledrift, Madungela 28 , KwaZulu-Natal (Annexure L). The event will celebrate the culmination of the research and development phase of the VSB prototype, developed as part of the NatSilt 28 Madungela is the preferred site for demonstration due to the following: (i) the Large contributing catchment downstream of existing Spioenkop Dam, this high sediment concentrations. Great for robust demonstration and analysis; (ii) the pump station abstracts raw water directly from the Thukela River and has no gravel trap, thus VSB supply will be at the hydro-cyclones with a tap-off from the raw water rising main from the river; (iii) the current sediment extrusion is by hydro-cyclones, therefore a good comparison with VSB performance will be possible; (iv) located in a secure location, with an available platform to place the VSB; and (v) proximity to Durban airport and good access road. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 65 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned Programme. The demonstration will showcase the innovative, low-cost solution for mitigating the effects of river siltation, specifically for the removal of fine non- cohesive sediment at small river abstraction works. The handover will involve a formal presentation, a guided tour of the site, and the operational commencement of the VSB plant. 4. • Tshwane Metropolitan Council. Rietvlei Dam was constructed between 1932 and 1934. It has been an important source of drinking water for the City of Tshwane. Unfortunately, the location of Rietvlei Dam’s catchment, which extends as far as OR Tambo International Airport and the resultant urban, industrial and agricultural pollution, has caused the dam to become hypertrophic. In 2008, the Rietvlei Dam, Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Pretoria. Improvement of in-lake eutrophicatio n using Solar- Powered Reservoir Circulator / Solar Bees at the Rietvlei Dam. The rehabilitation initiative started in 2008 and is ongoing. • The technology has been proven to improve water quality (increase oxygen levels throughout the dam) and reduced algal toxins (high phosphorus reduction) in the water. • Cyanobacterial growth has decreased allowing the ecosystem to return to a more natural state by The initiative is ongoing. The key lessons learned to date are as follows: • The SolarBee units are a true ‘green’ technology. • The SolarBee units tend to move out of position during periods of high rainfall or wind. However, they are easily towed back into position, and the city is now looking into using a different anchoring mechanism Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 66 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned Solar-Powered Reservoir Circulator / SolarBees for cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) control was introduced. The floating solar-powered reservoir long-distance circulation pump system was used to mix water columns and accelerate the biological and solar processes that clean up water. Both horizontal and vertical circulation patterns were created for improved distribution of oxygen, enhanced water clarity, elimination of cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) blooms and reduced nuisance aquatic weed growth. enabling the growth of green algae. These green algae are consumed, allowing for the improvement of the entire food chain. • The system is very economical, requires minimum maintenance, and can operate day and night using only solar energy. to improve their spatial stability. • The units have proved a significant attraction to the local water bird population. Fortunately, the SolarBees have been equipped with bird- repellent kits to prevent the birds from using the machines as nesting perches. • Yachters and canoeists have also expressed their satisfaction with improved conditions at the dam. Note: • WfWet did much to restore the wetland in the Rietvlei Nature Reserve, which aids in cleaning the incoming water to the dam. • The WRC in partnership with North-West University launched a project from 2008 to 2015 to unlock some of the scientific reasons behind the improvement of the dam’s water quality. The present ecological data was compared with historical data to determine the ecological status of the dam and the influence of the SolarBees. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 67 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned 5. • DWS - Project Lead) • Rand Water (Implementing Agent) - the main Regional Water Services Provider in the catchment of the Hartbeespoort Dam working together with a core group of service providers and specialists. The HDRP also known as Harties Metsi-a-Me Programme – the HRDP is a complex system that, in practice, integrates the activities in the catchment upstream. These activities include urbanisation, industrial, mining developments, agriculture and recreation. These activities have been increasing over the 90-year life of the dam. The dam is also the centre of a hub of economic activity both centred on the dam and water users downstream. The severe algal growth (hypertrophic state) in the dam has detrimental implications for both humans and the broader environmental health. Hartbeespoort Dam, North-West Province. Investigating the short-term and long-term methods and techniques to control the status of eutrophicatio n in the Hartbeespoort Dam. Phase 1 of HDRP started in 2006 and the period of the review ended in 2013 which is a short period in the life of the dam. Phase 2 of HDRP is planned for the near future. • Phase 1 achieved many successes which include the large-scale hyacinth and other alien plant removal with the beneficiation of this biomass, the testing of floating reed bed systems which increase the biodiversity and biomass of the open water, a fisheries programme and the clearing of debris from the system. Phase 1 of HDRP paved the way for the planned Phase 2. Phase 1 experienced some challenges, namely, a lack of phosphate management and weakness in technical and financial governance. As a result, key lessons learned for implementation of the next Phase 2 are as follows: • There should be a focus on the catchment upstream of the dam, specifically on improving the quality of the water flowing into the dam. The waste discharge charge system has been piloted in this catchment, and this provides the opportunity to implement the system. • Certain of the in-lake activities started in Phase 1 should be continued. However, the programme should be broadened to effectively address the quality of the inflowing water to reduce the loading of plant nutrients. • The 1 mg/ℓ Phosphate standard for effluents discharged into designated sensitive catchments by wastewater treatment works be reviewed in the light of the Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 68 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline and Status Lessons Learned capabilities of modern technology. • A stakeholder forum should be established. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 69 3.3.5 Groundwater The over-abstraction of groundwater resources is a major concern, leading not only to aquifer depletion and water quality degradation but also negative effects on the ecological integrity of streams and wetlands. This in turn, results in significant habitat and biodiversity losses. Biological contaminants in groundwater resources include algae and microbial organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Drinking water contaminated by microbial contaminants can result in public health risks, potentially leading to serious waterborne diseases such as typhoid, diarrhea and cholera. Groundwater is vulnerable to pollution from feedlots or cattle kraals, stock watering points, septic tanks, pit latrines, landfill sites and cemeteries, especially in areas with high rainfall and shallow water tables. Groundwater vulnerability is potentially significant in environments with high permeability, such as sandy and gravelly soils, or where fractured bedrock lies close to the ground surface. A great deal of research and concerted efforts were undertaken by various institutions (i.e., WRC, Council for Geoscience, higher education institutions and private consultants) to clearly identify the impacts and implement a wide range of rehabilitation interventions. Artificial Recharge 29 (AR) or Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) 30 is an example of an intervention that was implemented in Atlantis, Cape Town, whereby stormwater from the residential area is directed to the MAR basins and undergoes softening and chlorination before it is distributed to the town for water supply. This MAR scheme was initiated in 1979, and it is still in operation to date. This initiative has alleviated some of the pressure on the surface water resources in the region, especially with the impacts of climate change and further population and economic growth. It is worth noting that groundwater contributes to baseflow in rivers, wetlands and lakes and is critical in sustaining ecosystems during dry periods. Table 7 provides a summary of key groundwater rehabilitation initiatives implemented across South Africa, highlighting the diversity of approaches, implementation statuses, and lessons learned. These initiatives span from MAR, in-situ treatment methods, and ecological rehabilitation efforts: 1. In-situ iron removal treatment technique in preventing clogging of production boreholes, South Africa: 2014 - It is not documented whether the initiative is still in progress, or it was completed; 2. Rehabilitation of the veld and hydrogeology in the Nama Karoo, Western Cape: 2010 – It is not documented whether the initiative is still in progress, or it was completed; 3. eMalahleni Water Reclamation Plant, Mpumalanga: 2007 – ongoing; 4. Rehabilitation of the Arbor Colliery, Mpumalanga: 2005 - It is not documented whether the initiative is still in progress, or it was completed; 5. Karkams MAR Scheme, Northern Cape: 1995 – ongoing; and 6. Langebaan MAR Scheme, Western Cape: not yet in operation; 7. Plettenberg Bay MAR Scheme, Cape Town: not yet in operation; and 8. Atlantis MAR Scheme, Western Cape: 1979 – ongoing. 29 The term ‘Artificial’ does not capture the process of humans enhancing natural recharge in a systematic manner. These deficiencies in the term “Artificial Recharge” have been overcome by the now generally accepted term “Managed Aquifer Recharge” (MAR). 30 MAR is the practice of increasing the amount of water that enters an aquifer through human-controlled means. For example, groundwater can be artificially recharged by redirecting water across the land surface through canals, infiltration basins, or ponds from which water seeps into the subsurface; creating irrigation furrows to allow infiltration of excess irrigation water; using sprinkler systems to irrigate with surface water, some of which infiltrates beyond plant roots; or injecting water directly into the subsurface through boreholes. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 70 Table 7: Groundwater rehabilitation initiatives implemented in South Africa. Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned 1. • WRC; • Council for Geoscience; and • Private Consultant. Preventing production borehole clogging by in-situ iron removal in aquifer systems – the initiative entailed the investigation and feasibility of the in-situ iron removal treatment technique in preventing clogging of production boreholes in a South African context by removing Iron (Fe 2+) and Manganese (Mn 2+) from the groundwater. Although existence of iron and manganese in water generally do not cause health complications, problems are associated with water colouring and taste, clothes staining, and encouragement of bacterial growth in water distribution networks which affect a pipe’s transfer efficiency. The investigation found that iron removal by the in-situ iron removal method is feasible, even at small- scale application. The investigation also found that the in-situ iron removal treatment using ozone 31 has the potential to increase the removal efficiency of iron and manganese in groundwater, particularly in areas with high organic carbon and/or Western Cape, South Africa. To investigate the feasibility of the in-situ treatment technique in preventing clogging of production boreholes in a South African context by removing Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ from groundwater. The rehabilitation initiative started in 2014. It is not documented whether the initiative is ongoing or when it was completed. • The initiative found that iron removal by the in- situ removal method is feasible, even at small- scale application; and • Results of the investigation showed that iron and manganese concentrations in the dissolved phase were reduced considerably. • The lesson learned from the initiative is that the in-situ iron removal treatment using ozone has the potential to increase the removal efficiency of Fe and Mn in groundwater, particularly in areas with high organic carbon and/or silica concentrations, which complexes with Fe and Mn. The findings of the initiative are critical for groundwater rehabilitation, especially in areas experiencing excessive concentrations of Fe and Mn; and • The use of ozone was found to be very effective in generating the desired high DO concentrations in the subsurface. 31 Ozone is well-known and widely applied for disinfection and oxidation purposes in the treatment of drinking water. In this case, ozone is used an oxidant for in-situ treatment and removal for Fe and Mn through its injection into the aquifer. The use of ozone allows for the injection to be either as a gas (in-situ ozone sparging) or as a liquid (in-situ ozonated water). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 71 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned silica concentrations. In addition, ozone was applied on-site and injected back into the aquifer by means of well points at the Atlantis wellfields and this yielded positive results. 2. • WRC; • Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology and School of Public Management and Planning, Stellenbosch University; and • CSIR. Restoration of the veld and hydrogeology in the Nama Karoo – the site is in the heavily grazed and degraded area. Invasion by alien plants (Prosopis species) was a major environmental and economic problem in the area. The concentration of species around water points, combined with their deep root system, was thought to have reduced the availability of groundwater through both the interception of water in the upper soil levels as well as the deep roots tapping into the groundwater. This groundwater contributes to the water supply for the Karoo town of Beaufort West, and it was important to protect this resource. The sustainability of the meat and wool- based small-stock industry of the area relies entirely on natural pasture and this industry is threatened by the erosion of natural capital base by infestations of the species. Nama Karoo, Beaufort West in the Western Cape. Clearing of the Prosopis species to raise the level of groundwater and regeneration of natural rangeland vegetation cover and grazing capacity. The rehabilitation activities commenced in 2010, and literature does not reveal the completion date. Clearing of Prosopis species has not yet shown positive benefits. Although the vegetation has changed following clearing to resemble un-invaded vegetation, its grazing value has not improved significantly as plant species have not yet recolonised the cleared areas. It was recommended that, following the clearing, the area be re-seeded with plants and livestock and game be excluded from the treated site for a period to allow the plants to establish. The effect of Prosopis removal on the water table is being investigated. It is not documented whether the initiative is in progress, or it was completed. 3. • BHP Billiton; and eMalahleni Water Reclamation Plant (EWRP) – the catchment is water- The Reclamation Plant is located in To manage safety and The initiative was established in 2007, and it is still in The plant currently purifies 30 m 3 /day to potable quality. Out of this, 16 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 72 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned • Anglo American stressed due to a growing population and climate change induced reductions in annual rainfall, which has increased pressure on the drinking water supply for the city. The city is already struggling to meet the water demand by extracting 120m 3 /day from the local Witbank Dam, exceeding the licensed withdrawal volume of 75 m 3 /day. The EWRP system was set up to pump excess mine water from the Kleinkopje Colliery, Landau Colliery, the Greenside Colliery and the South Witbank Colliery to EWRP, where it is treated to potable water standards and provided to the local municipality. The plant uses a High Recovery Precipitating Reverse Osmosis (HiPRO) process, from which low salinity product water is generated by a membrane process. To maintain the proper level of water quality, the plant is fitted with online instrumentation for constant monitoring. The produced water is also stored batch-wise in reservoirs and quality tested again before it is pumped to the municipal reservoirs. Any water not complying with SANS241 is not added to the municipal water supply and is the Nkangala District Municipality of Mpumalanga. environmental problems caused by rising underground mine water. operation. According to the current prognosis, the current volume of 30 m 3 /day of purified water is going to increase to 180 m 3 /day by 2030. m 3 /day of is chlorinated and provided to the local municipality, providing 20% of the total potable demand. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 73 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned instead returned to the WRP for re- processing 4. • DWS. The DWS commissioned a study to determine the total number of abandoned and defunct coal mines within the upper Olifants River catchment. Arbor Colliery was identified as one of the 27 mines with a high priority, based on the potential impact on water quality and safety issues. A major factor in this assessment was the presence of a large informal community living near the mined-out area. The mine comprises a series of opencast pits, as well as poorly defined underground workings. The water within the opencast pits showed high levels of acidity, elevated sulfate levels and elevated metals (i.e., Al, Fe and Mn). From the investigations, it was concluded that there was an urgent need for this mine to be rehabilitated, given the risk to the community. The proposed rehabilitation intervention was the backfilling of the open cast operations. Initial water would be cascaded from one pit to the next to avoid spilling as backfilling progresses. The mine is located in the upper Olifants River catchment, Mpumalanga. Rehabilitation of the mine to improve water quality as well as safety issues. Rehabilitation of the mine was scheduled to commence in October 2005 and there is no indication whether the proposed interventions were implemented. It is not documented whether the initiative i still in progress, or it was completed. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 74 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned The long-term options for water management were as follows: • Discharge of water to the catchment after treatment to remove sulphates, probably using biological treatment systems. Operation of these treatment systems would offer some employment opportunities to the community. • Pump excess water to a nearby underground mine, from where an operational mine would abstract the water for use in their coal washing plant. 5. • Kamiesberg Local Municipality; • DWS; and • WRC. Kharkams MAR Scheme (Annexure M) – with no perennial rivers in the area and a mean annual rainfall of 250mm, the village depends solely on groundwater pumped from the municipality’s three abstraction boreholes. Natural groundwater recharge is very low, and because of continuous abstraction since the mid-1990s, groundwater levels had dropped 10m and the water quality (salinity) had deteriorated significantly. The scheme includes a sand filter that is built in the bed of the ephemeral river. Most of the water, when available, flows over and past the filter, but some infiltrates the sand filter and flows to the injection boreholes. Kharkams is a small village in Namaqualand region, Northern Cape. Replenishing the aquifer when river runoff is available, during periods of irregular flooding The MAR scheme commenced in 1995, and it is ongoing. • Three controlled injection runs from 1999 to 2001 had the effect of reversing the declining water level trend. • The water quality improved significantly after injecting the clear filtered river water. The initiative demonstrates the value of opportunistic MAR (simple and cost- effective method), with no pumping and maintenance costs. The only maintenance required during operation is weekly removal of the fine sediment that settles on the filter since it slows down infiltration. An additional benefit of introducing fresh water to the aquifer is that it significantly lowers the salinity of the groundwater. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 75 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned 6. • DWS; • WRC and • Saldanha Bay Municipality and West Coast District Municipality. Langebaan MAR Scheme - the town has struggled with water shortages due to extreme drought weather conditions since 2014. The possible water sources for the scheme are excess volumes from the Berg River during the winter season and secondary treated wastewater. The 2008/2009 investigation by the CSIR proposed the scheme at Langebaan Road as part of a suite of suitable and appropriate water supply augmentation schemes. The scheme contains two wellfields, Langebaan Road and Elandsfontein already connected to the municipal water supply pipeline. The borehole injection method (Annexure N) had already been pilot-tested for this aquifer and infiltration tests would be required, as infiltration may be better suited for this area. Langebaan town is located approximately 100km north of Cape Town, along the west coast. Recharging the Langebaan aquifer with treated wastewater for the town’s industrial and domestic use The MAR scheme is not yet in operation. • The Langebaan Road wellfield with four production boreholes authorised to abstract was initiated for Saldanha Bay Municipality during the early 1990s. • Test phase commenced during 2008/2009 to determine the feasibility of the scheme. No reference is made to lessons learned as the scheme has not commenced and is still in testing phase. Local and district municipalities together with consultants are working together to explore and study the groundwater system, to better understand it and successfully implement sustainable water supply schemes. 7. • Bitou Local Municipality and Eden District Municipality. Plettenberg Bay MAR Scheme – the area has both a high demand for water in the summer and a surplus of water in the winter, making it potentially a good candidate for MAR. At present (see existing water supply components on Annexure O), the town depends on surface water from the Keurbooms River for most of its domestic water supply needs. Water quality in the Keurbooms is generally very good. During periods of low Plettenberg Bay, Southern Cape. Recharging the aquifer with surplus of water in the winter period to allow the aquifer to deliver more water during high peak summer. The MAR scheme is not yet in operation. • A MAR pre-feasibility study and assessment was conducted in 2007, and the results were favourable indicating that the aquifer is highly permeable with high storage capacity and can easily accept injection water. The results of the assessments indicated how peak demand could be met through incorporation of the scheme into the Plettenberg Bay supply system. Injection of the water would take place in July to September and abstraction in November to March, with rest periods in between. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 76 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned demand, raw water bypasses the treatment plant and is piped to the Roodefontein Dam, where it can be retrieved when necessary. In addition to the surface water resources, there is groundwater source in the Kwanokuthula township area used solely in the township. The combined average yield of the Kwanokuthula boreholes is not sufficient to meet the total demand of township, and the balance is drawn from the Keurbooms River via the water treatment works. The proposed scheme contains an injection borehole that would triple the volumes of groundwater in the aquifer. The aquifer would need to hold the recharged water from winter when it is recharged until summer when the water is abstracted again during the peak season. 8. • City of Cape Town; • DWS; and • WRC. Atlantis MAR Scheme (Annexure P) – the initial groundwater supply planned for Atlantis was insufficient to support the population and growing industry within the area. The closest alternative water source was the Berg River, which is 70km away and piping water would be too costly. Thus, groundwater resources were further explored and the Witzand and Silwerstroom wellfields were developed. Stormwater detention basins were constructed and much of Atlantis town is approximately 50km north of the City of Cape Town. Recharging the Atlantis aquifer with treated wastewater for the town’s industrial and domestic use. The MAR scheme was initiated in 1979, and it is still in operation. • Water quality is measured intensively, both in the aquifer and in the urban water management system. The aquifer water quality is assessed by sampling boreholes within the developed wellfields as well as monitoring points The scheme is an excellent example of wise and efficient water use, including water recycling for potable services. It has also alleviated some of the pressure on the surface water resources in the region, especially with impacts of climate change and further population/economic growth. The scheme ensured the sustainability of the Atlantis water supply for over four decades and continues to play a key role. A major component of the Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 77 Authority/ Organisation/Institution Description of the Activity Location Objective Timeline Status Lessons Learned the water infiltrated into the sandy soils, inadvertently recharging the groundwater. A total of 12 stormwater retention and detention basins capture stormwater from the residential areas. The combined stormwater from the residential area is directed to the MAR basins and undergoes softening and chlorination before it is distributed to town for water supply. spread throughout the Atlantis water management area on a five-week cycle. Most of the water quality parameters fall within the drinking water standards. scheme has been the separation of the source water into different fractions, as this has allowed recharge of the highest quality water in the areas of greatest importance. The scheme provides a cost-effective water supply option when coupled with careful management of the water sources and the aquifer as opposed to transporting surface water 70km from the Berg River. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 78 4. CONCLUSION Several rehabilitation initiatives have been undertaken across institutions in the South African water sector for rivers, wetlands, estuaries, lakes and dams as well as groundwater. Tables 3 to 7 provided succinct summaries of these initiatives, highlighting their role in enhancing the ecosystem’ functioning. The benefits derived from these efforts include improved water quality, biodiversity, flood prevention, waste decomposition, and soil generation to better aesthetic and recreational spaces for the surrounding communities. To this end, it is apparent that the rehabilitation of water resources requires institutional collaboration and cooperative governance given the large number of organisations, institutions and government departments that play a role in the rehabilitation. For instance, the rehabilitation of urban rivers that are of importance to supporting the natural processes in the Zandvlei Catchment was achieved through an integrated approach to promote coherence within government and between government as well as non-government collaborations. Similarly, the rehabilitation of rivers in the Sabie-Sand Catchment promoted collaborative research, diverse knowledge sources and partnership between the KNP Rivers Research Programme and communities as well as staff from the DFFE WfW programme to jointly coordinate upstream and downstream activities relating to river and catchment management. The assessment undertaken by the DFFE WfWet Programme on wetlands was aimed to identify priority catchments and associated wetlands within which rehabilitation work needed to be completed. As part of the intervention, a review was conducted to determine local knowledge and identify existing studies in the quaternary catchments of each province. The decisions on the selection of priority wetlands to be rehabilitated, namely Sekhukhune 1 and 2 and Maluti-A-Phofung (Ararat) wetlands, were informed by input from wetland fora, existing biodiversity and/or conservation plans, municipalities, state departments and various other stakeholders. The harvesting of reeds and sedges is of cultural and commercial importance to local communities surrounding Lake St Lucia. The separation of Lake St Lucia from the uMfolozi River had dire implications for human welfare, especially local communities. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority prioritised the rehabilitation of St Lucia in 2012, with assistance from the GEF, including investing in extensive research to find long-term solutions to the hydrological and ecological issues. Major progress has been achieved to date, which includes, amongst others, the reinstating of the natural processes of the system (i.e., the natural opening and closing of the estuary mouth to the sea) which allowed for the migration of fish and prawn species. It is also reported that fish and other plants continue to be harvested for beneficial use. These milestones were made possible by the participation of local communities in decision-making and the implementation of various programmes that delivered tangible benefits to local communities. Phase 1 of the HDRP is another example of an intervention that was implemented from 2006 to 2013 to explore a wide variety of short-term and long-term methods and techniques to control the status of eutrophication in the dam. One of the lessons learned during Phase 1 of the HDRP was the challenge of practical implementation of cooperative governance. One of the recommendations from planned Phase 1 of HDRP was the establishment of an effective stakeholder forum to assist with the harmonisation of all other related activities in the area to ensure optimal economic growth and sustainability. Stakeholder involvement would create awareness of the successes and challenges of the programme and the opportunities for involvement. Extensive awareness activities would target the public, local authorities, industry, mining, agriculture and international interests. In addition, education and advocacy are also critical to facilitate behaviour change with regards to the way people and institutions manage their water and deal with their waste. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 79 The Kharkams and Atlantis MAR Schemes have been operational for over 30 and 40 years respectively, providing the most cost-effective sources of new safe water supply for towns and small communities. Both schemes have been found to have a wide range of benefits such as the alleviation of the pressure and reliance on the scarce surface water resources, as well as water quality improvement (i.e., lowering the salinity of the groundwater) when fresh water is injected into the aquifer. Despite the successful pre-feasibility assessments conducted for both the Langebaan and Plettenberg Bay MAR schemes, the slow progress in the roll-out is attributed to a lack of appropriate governance and institutional development for the sustainable utilisation and management of groundwater resources. Therefore, it is for this reason that challenges and opportunities that exist in cooperative governance and partnerships must be investigated. The knowledge generated from such investigations should be used in guiding how the concept of cooperative governance and partnerships could be applied in future groundwater resource rehabilitation initiatives. The current RMGs in Practice report was the culmination of the developed RMGs for water resources including, Rivers (Volume 1), Wetlands (Volume 2), Estuaries (Volume 3), Lakes and Dams (Volume 4) and Groundwater (Volume 5) that served as a valuable tool to demonstrate to intended users how the guidelines can be applied in real-world situations (i.e., initiatives contained in Tables 3 to 7. The RMGs in Practice report fulfilled its purpose of providing a succinct account of rehabilitation initiatives, either ongoing or completed at a catchment level, by various authorities/organisations/institutions and a demonstration of their applicability in real-world situations. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 80 5. WAY FORWARD The next step of the RMG project is to conduct the Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E) inclusive of the reporting on the components of the ongoing rehabilitation interventions that were implemented as presented in Tables 3 to 7. Monitoring and Evaluation will also encompass some of the new and relevant rehabilitation projects that are not covered in this report. This task will be achieved through consultation and requests for information on the progress made to date from the relevant authorities, organisations, and/or institutions involved in the initiatives. The monitoring systems/mechanisms should be put in place by the responsible authorities to support the continuous evaluation of the interventions to assist project/WMA/CMA managers and the RMG champions to assess whether the interventions are progressing on schedule and are proceeding as planned. Furthermore, the evaluation process will also assist managers in determining whether the set rehabilitation objectives of the interventions are achieved in terms of environmental and social aspects. In essence, these systems/mechanisms monitor both environmental and social interventions. This monitoring would ensure that the interventions are within range as per the initial rehabilitation objectives that were set. In terms of instances whereby there are rehabilitation structures damaged (i.e., structures that were damaged and/or failing and thus requires maintenance) due to vandalism as an example, community interventions such as promotion of awareness and education on water resource management would be applicable. Reporting is an integral part of M & E and should duly be executed in a systematic and timely manner to provide information on the progress of interventions at periodic intervals. Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting are important components of rehabilitation projects that need to be conducted before, during and after interventions to demonstrate the aspects that ought to be reported upon. Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting should therefore be applied to assess amongst others, the quality of interventions implemented and ensure the rectification of any problems, and provision of feedback by the relevant authorities, organisations, and/or institutions regarding lessons learnt. The following are some of the key indicators to assess the overall performance of the interventions. • Monitor the results of the techniques and methods employed for rehabilitation; • Determine whether the rehabilitation objectives were achieved and whether there are any additional interventions required; • Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions against the achievement of rehabilitation objectives and outcomes; and • Determine maintenance objectives. As part of the reporting process, a framework should be designed to capture the data as per the M & E activity for reporting purposes. An example of a data-gathering template is provided in Annexure Q. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 81 REFERENCE LIST Braune, E., and Sumaya, I. 2021, Managed Aquifer Recharge: Southern Africa. The Groundwater Project, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. https://doi.org/10.21083/978-1-77470-006-8. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2009. Swartkops Integrated Environmental Management Plan. Volume 1: Situation Assessment (State of Paly Report). Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2010. Berg Estuary Management Plan. Prepared by Anchor Environmental Consultants (Pty) Ltd. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Eerste River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Hout Bay River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Diep River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Lourens River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Silvermine River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Diep Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Sir Lowry’s Pass River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Zeekoevlei River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Diep River Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme. 2011. Estuary Management Plan for the Zandvlei Estuary. Report prepared by Prepared by Coastal and Environmental Consulting. Collins, N.B. 2005. Wetlands: the basics and some more. Free State Department of Tourism, Environmental and Economic Affairs. Convention on Climate Change 1992. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Conservation International. 2022. Freshwater Health Index for Umzimvubu River Catchment, South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 82 Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2015. South Africa’s 2nd National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2015 – 2025. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2019a. Draft Provincial Strategic Plan: Working for Wetlands: Gauteng. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2019b. Draft Provincial Strategic Plan: Working for Wetlands: North-West. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2019c. Draft Provincial Strategic Plan: Working for Wetlands: Eastern Cape. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2019d. Draft Provincial Strategic Plan: Working for Wetlands: Limpopo Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2019e. Draft Provincial Strategic Plan: Working for Wetlands: Northern Cape. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). 2019f. Draft Provincial Strategic Plan: Working for Wetlands: Western Cape. Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE). 2021a. National Wetland Management Framework for South Africa. Annexure 1: Review of Existing Institutional Framework for Wetland Management in South Africa. Unpublished report prepared by Eco- Pulse Environmental Consulting Services - D. M. Macfarlane, J. V. Lagesse, D. Ollis, D. Du Toit and S. Pollard. Report No. EP510-05-A1. Version 0.1. July 2021. Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE). 2021b. National Wetland Management Framework for South Africa. Annexure 4: Assessment of existing challenges, constraints and exploring potential opportunities and solutions. Unpublished report prepared by Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services - D. M. Macfarlane, J. V. Lagesse, D. Ollis, D. Du Toit and S. Pollard. Report No. EP510-05-A4. Version 0.1. July 2021. Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE). 2021c. National Wetland Management Framework for South Africa. Unpublished report prepared by Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services - D. M. Macfarlane, J. V. Lagesse, D. Ollis, D. Du Toit and S. Pollard. Report No. EP510-05. Version 0.1. August 2021. Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE). 2021d. National Wetland Management Framework for South Africa. Report prepared by Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services - D. M. Macfarlane, J. V. Lagesse, D. Ollis, D. Du Toit and S. Pollard. Report No EP510-05. November 2021. Department of Water Affairs (DWAF). 1990. Great Brak River: Estuary environmental study with reference to a management plan for the Wolwedans Dam and Great Brak River Mouth. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2016b. The National Groundwater Strategy. Department of Water and Sanitation. 2016a. Integrated Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa: Water Quality and Water Quality Management Challenges in South Africa. Report No. 1.3 (Water Resource Planning Systems Series Report No. 000/00/21715/5, Pretoria, South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation. 2017. Integrated Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa: Water Quality and Water Quality Management Challenges in South Africa (Report No. 1.3) (Water Resource Planning Systems Series Report No. 000/00/21715/5, PRETORIA: Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 83 Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2017. Integrated Water Quality Management Policies and Strategies for South Africa. Water Resource Planning Systems Series Report No. 000/00/21715/5, PRETORIA: Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). 2018a. National Water and Sanitation Master Plan – Volume 3: Schedule of Action (Version 4.8), PRETORIA: Department of Water and Sanitation. Department of Water and Sanitation. 2018b. National Water and Sanitation Master Plan – Volume 2: Plan to Action (Version 4.2), PRETORIA: Department of Water and Sanitation . Department of Water and Sanitation. 2023a. National Water Resource Strategy. 3rd Edition. Pretoria, South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation. 2023b. Eutrophication Management Strategy for South Africa. Edition 2, Project Report Number 4.2, Sources Directed Studies Report Number RDM/EMPandS/00/IHS/SDS/0520. Pretoria, South Africa. Department of Water and Sanitation. 2023c. Integrated Water Quality Management Policy – draft for Public Comments. Pretoria, South Africa Department of Water and Sanitation. 2025. Draft Constructed Wetlands and Ecologically Engineered Wetlands Guidelines for South Africa for Water Use Authorisation in terms of impacts on characteristics of watercourses. Department of Water and Sanitation, South Africa, 2025. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 2007. Hartbeespoort Dam Integrated Biological Remediation Progamme, November 2007. Dini, j., and Everard, M. 2016. National Wetland Policy: South Africa. eThekwini Municipality. n.d. Palmiet River Rehabilitation Project. False Bay Nature Reserve. 2024. Information Document on Dredging of Zeekoevlei Estuary. Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF). 2022. Decision adopted by the conference of the parties to the convention on biological diversity. Hans W. P., Wayne S. G., Karl E. H., Allen, R.J., Mark. J.M., , Silvia E.N, Boqiang, Q. and Scott, S.T. 2015. Mitigating cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms in aquatic ecosystems impacted by climate change and anthropogenic nutrients. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568988315301049 ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability – Africa. 2018. Wetland Management Guidelines: Building Capacity and Supporting Effective Management of Wetlands within South African Municipalities. Guidelines developed by Eco-Pulse Environmental Consulting Services - Ryan Edwards, Douglas Macfarlane, Kirsty Robinson, Adina Israel, Marieke de Groen and Stuart Dunsmore with contributions from Confluence Lab, Aqua Links and Fourth Element. Lamberth, S.J., Drapeau L. and Branch, G.M. 2009. The effects of altered freshwater inflows on catch rates of non-estuarine-dependent fish in a multispecies nearshore line fishery. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 84: 527-538. Mossel Bay Municipality. 2016. Hartenbos Estuary management Plan: 2016-2021: First Generation EMP. Prepared by Anchor Environmental Consultants (Pty) Ltd. National Planning Commission (NPC). 2012. National Development Plan 2030: Our future – make it work. National Planning Commission, Department; the Presidency, Republic of South Africa. Overstrand Local Municipality. 2024. Maintenance Management Plan for the Onrus Estuary, Hermanus. Report prepared by Anchor Environmental Consultants (Pty) Ltd. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 84 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. 2016. An Introduction to the Convention on Wetlands. Ramsar handbooks 5th edition 2016. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2024. Presentation on Ecological Infrastructure: Setting the Scene. Presentation on 25 November 2025, by Ms Jenifer Zungu, Project Lead: Ecological Infrastructure for Water Security (EI4WS) Project. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2014. South Africa’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2019. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. Statistics South Africa. 2023. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Country report – South Africa. ISBN 978-0-621-51505-3. Pretoria, South Africa. United Nations. 2008. Draft articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers. Adopted by the International Law Commission at its sixtieth session, in 2008, and submitted to the General Assembly as a part of the Commission’s report covering the work of that session. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). n.d. United Nations convention to combat desertification in those countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). 2022. Decisions adopted by the executive board at its 215 th session. 18 November 2022, Paris. Water Research Commission (WRC). 2003. River Rehabilitation: Literature Review, Case Studies and Emerging Principles. Water Research Commission Project (WRC Project No.: 1161/1/03). Water Research Commission (WRC). 2011. Atlas of Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas in South Africa: Maps to support sustainable development of water resources. WRC Report No. TT 500/11. Water Research Commission (WRC). 2011. Vortex Settling Basin (VSB) Demonstration Handover Event (WRC, 2025). Waygood, C., Palmer, M. and Schwab, R. 2006. Case Study on the remediation of the defunct coal mine Arbor Colliery, in Mpumalanga South Africa. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 85 ANNEXURES ANNEXURE A: EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS AND/OR ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS AND THEIR APPLICABILITY IN SOUTH AFRICA (DWS, 2025). A.1 Types of Artificial and/or Constructed Wetlands There are several types of constructed wetlands, each suited to different water treatment needs: • Surface Flow Wetlands: water flows horizontally over a bed of vegetation, allowing for exposure to the atmosphere, sunlight, and plants, which helps to break down contaminants. Mimic natural wetlands where water flows over the vegetation and soil surface. Ideal for treating municipal wastewater, urban runoff and Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). Also used extensively in ecological planning, landscape design and recreational features. Can be combined with sub- surface flow wetlands. Figure 2: Examples of Mooiplaats Campus constructed wetlands Source: DWS, 2025 • Subsurface Flow Wetlands: water flows through a porous substrate (usually gravel or sand) below the surface, which prevents exposure to air and enhances microbial activity for water purification. Treat water by allowing it to flow horizontally or vertically through a permeable medium planted with wetland vegetation. Used for more controlled treatment processes where contact with humans and animals is minimised. The latest WWTW constructed wetlands mostly make use of vertical flow, like at Midstream Estate and Mooiplaats student campus. • Hybrid Systems: these systems combine elements of surface flow and subsurface flow wetlands to maximise treatment efficiency, particularly in complex scenarios where multiple types of pollutants need to be addressed. Combine multiple wetland types to maximise treatment efficiency and address complex or variable waste streams. • Instream versus off- stream: constructed wetlands can be designed in- stream or off- stream and should be considered in the planning and alternatives phase to cause minimum impacts to natural systems. A.2. Applications of Artificial and/or Constructed Wetlands Constructed wetlands are specifically engineered to perform functions that natural wetlands would otherwise provide. They are typically used in settings where natural wetlands are unavailable, insufficient, or require additional assistance to manage water-related challenges. Some unique applications of constructed wetlands include: Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 86 • AMD Rehabilitation: using constructed wetlands to treat the acidic, metal-laden water resulting from mining activities, these systems neutralise acidity and remove heavy metals. • Sewage and Industrial Effluent Treatment: constructed wetlands can purify wastewater from municipal and industrial treatment facilities, providing an efficient, cost-effective solution for improving water quality before discharge or reuse. • Stormwater Management: in both urban and rural areas, constructed wetlands help manage stormwater runoff, reduce flood risks, and improve the quality of water entering rivers and lakes. • Agricultural Runoff Treatment: by filtering nutrients, pesticides, and other pollutants from agricultural runoff, constructed wetlands prevent downstream water contamination and support sustainable agricultural practices. • Urban Greening and Cooling: in urban environments, constructed wetlands are integrated into green infrastructure projects, helping to mitigate the urban heat island effect and providing green spaces that enhance biodiversity and human well-being. • Industrial Water Management: wetlands treat water used in industrial processes, reducing pollution and enabling water reuse, thereby promoting sustainable industrial practices. • Landscape Architecture: in most landscape architecture projects, constructed wetlands play a role to enhance the ecological category of watercourses, recreation, sense of place, open space experience. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 87 A.4. Examples and Applications of Artificial and/or Constructed Wetlands Table 8: Examples and Applications of Artificial and/or Constructed Wetlands Source: DWS, 2025 EXAMPLES DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION Example 1: Klein Kariba Example of constructed wetland weirs, stream canalisation and stream rehabilitation in a stream at Klein Kariba as part of landscape architecture (landscape planning, landscape design, landscape rehabilitation, flood protection, stream rehabilitation). Important is to add natural veld scientific buffers for ecological connectivity, riparian habitat and to add topsoil and vegetation on the side slopes of constructed streams to enhance the ecological category. Figure 3: Constructed wetland weirs, stream canalisation and stream rehabilitation in a stream Source: DWS, 2025 Example 2. In the Western Cape, a constructed wetland was developed adjacent to a winery to treat effluent. The site was selected based on proximity to the pollution source, suitable clay soils, and existing infrastructure access, ensuring efficient treatment and minimal environmental impact. Example 3. In Mpumalanga, an ecologically engineered wetland was established on a degraded agricultural site. The project aimed to restore natural hydrology, enhance biodiversity, and reconnect fragmented habitats. Site selection focused on areas with high restoration potential and opportunities to create ecological corridors. Example 4. A municipal wastewater treatment plant in Limpopo conducted a feasibility study for a constructed wetland to reduce operational costs and improve effluent quality. Economic analysis showed significant savings over time, and community engagement addressed Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 88 EXAMPLES DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION concerns about potential odours. Environmental assessments ensured compliance with regulations, and adaptive management plans were established Example 5. In the Northern Cape, a feasibility assessment for restoring a degraded wetland focused on enhancing water security for local communities. Stakeholder engagement included farmers and indigenous groups. Economic valuation of ecosystem services demonstrated long-term benefits outweighing initial costs. Environmental assessments highlighted the potential for significant biodiversity gains. Example 6: Lakenvlei wetland. A regenerative wetland rehabilitation project in a rural catchment area uses a combination of surface and subsurface flow areas to treat agricultural runoff while enhancing the local biodiversity. The design includes zones for different plant species that provide habitats for various wildlife species, improving ecological connectivity in the region. Another example might include removing agriculture out of wetlands by implementing scientific buffers and re- vegetation with wetland species. The rehabilitation of Lakenvlei wetland can also be seen as an example where the focus is on wetland rehabilitation as part of Glencore Mining Company efforts to comply with a Water Use License condition to implement wetland offsetting for wetlands authorised by the Department of Water and Sanitation to be destructed. Figure 4: Lakenvlei wetland rehabilitation via ecologically engineered methods like rock weirs and dongalocks courtesy of Birdlife Africa Source: DWS, 2025 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 89 EXAMPLES DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION Example 7: Zaalklapspruit wetland. The Zaalklapspruit wetland plays a significant role in improving the AMD ending up in the Wilge River in the upper Olifants River catchment. Average Sulphate concentrations were reduced by 70%, while Al, Fe, and Mn levels were reduced by 98%, 80%, and 83%, from the inflow to the outflow sites of the wetland over a period of 5 five years of monitoring. Groundwater and surface water interaction is crucial to determine if an ecologically engineered wetland can retain its passive treatment capacity during drought conditions. From the study, it was evident that groundwater did not play a role in the passive treatment of the wetland during the dry and wet seasons. Valuable Lessons learned from the Zaalklapspruit wetland that can be used for the development of constructed surface wetlands. Figure 5: Zaalklapspruit ecological engineered wetland implemented by the University of the Free State (UFS) to treat AMD Source: DWS, 2025 Example 8. A constructed wetland treating industrial effluents incorporates a multi-stage treatment process with separate zones for sedimentation, nutrient removal, and final polishing. The hydraulic design includes adjustable weirs to control water depth and flow speed, optimizing treatment efficiency across various operating conditions. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 90 EXAMPLES DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION Example 9. In a community park, a constructed wetland is designed with a variety of flowering wetland plants that treat urban runoff while providing a beautiful focus point, sense of place and educational landscape for visitors. The plant selection includes species with different sizes, forms, colours, textures, shapes and blooming periods to ensure year-round visual interest and ecological function. Example 10: Floating wetlands. • Dams: Enhance biodiversity on dams, farmlands and watercourses through constructed wetlands. Best practice materials selection is required. • Water quality: Enhance water quality through a range of design options. Figure 6: Floating wetlands concepts and materials Source: DWS, 2025 Example 11. A farm incorporates a small, constructed wetland to treat and recycle livestock wastewater or housing conservancy tank sewage water. The wetland is strategically placed to intercept runoff from barnyards and feedlots, reducing nutrient loads into local waterways and providing irrigation for pastures. Example 12. A city park includes a constructed wetland that manages stormwater while providing a scenic setting for visitors. The wetland features a combination of water-loving trees, perennial flowers, and grasses, with paths and benches that invite public interaction and enjoyment. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 91 EXAMPLES DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION Example 13. A rural community develops a wetland to treat agricultural runoff, which also serves as a community gathering space. The project includes a partnership with local schools to provide educational programs and is funded by grants aimed at improving rural water quality and community health. Example 14: Molopo Eye peat wetland. Wetlands play a crucial role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation, making them valuable tools for ecological restoration and climate change mitigation. Peat Formation: Some wetlands, particularly peatlands, are highly effective at storing carbon in their soil and vegetation. Molopo Eye peat wetland that is mismanaged by over abstraction which leads to the peat burning and wetland destruction. The Molopo Eye wetland is in urgent need of rehabilitation because of over abstraction. Long-Term Sequestration: Design wetlands to maximize carbon capture and storage, considering factors such as plant species selection and water management. Example 15. A national wildlife refuge includes a series of ecologically engineered wetlands designed to restore indigenous fish populations and support migratory bird species. The wetlands are part of a larger effort to restore a riverine ecosystem, providing critical habitats and connecting existing protected areas. Examples include Chrissiesmeer and Wilderness wetlands. All these wetlands are interconnected Example 16. An urban wetland park uses solar-powered sensors to continuously monitor water quality and control gates that adjust water levels. The park features an education centre with interactive exhibits that teach visitors about the functions of wetlands and the importance of water conservation. The centre also hosts workshops for local schools and community groups, promoting environmental education and stewardship. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 92 ANNEXURE B: RESULTS FOR FRESHWATER HEALTH INDEX INDICATORS Table 9: Results for Freshwater Health Index Indicators Source: Conservation International, 2022 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 93 ANNEXURE C: LOCALITY MAP OF THE EERSTE RIVER ESTUARY Figure 7: Locality map of the Eerste River Estuary Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 ANNEXURE D: LOCALITY MAP OF THE HOUT BAY RIVER ESTUARY Figure 8: Locality map of the Hout Bay River Estuary Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 94 ANNEXURE E: LOCALITY MAP OF THE LOURENS RIVER ESTUARY Figure 9: Locality map of the Lourens River Estuary Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 ANNEXURE F: LOCALITY MAP OF THE SILVERMINE RIVER ESTUARY Figure 10: Locality map of the Silvermine River Estuary Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 95 ANNEXURE G: LOCALITY MAP OF THE SIR LOWRY’S PASS RIVER ESTUARY Figure 11: Locality map of the Sir Lowry’s River Estuary Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 ANNEXURE H: LOCALITY MAP OF THE ZEEKOEVLEI RIVER ESTUARY Figure 12: Locality map of the Zeekoevlei River Estuary Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 96 ANNEXURE I: LOCALITY MAP OF THE DIEP RIVER ESTUARY Figure 13: Locality map of the Diep River Estuary comprising of Rietvlei and the Milnerton Lagoon Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 97 ANNEXURE J: LOCALITY MAP OF THE ZANDVLEI ESTUARY Figure 14 Locality map of the Diep Zandvlei Estuary compromising the channel, vlei, marina and wetland Source: Cape Action Plan for the Environment Estuaries (C.A.P.E) Programme, 2011 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 98 ANNEXURE K: FLOATING BOOMS AT HARTBEESPOORT DAM, LOCATED IN THE NORTH-WEST PROVINCE OF SOUTH AFRICA Figure 15: Floating booms [(Clockwise, from top left (1 to 6) implemented at Hartbeespoort Dam, including other technologies used for rehabilitation of eutrophication] Sources: Hans et al., 2015 (Clockwise from top left) 1. Floating booms at Hartbeespoort Dam used to concentrate cyanobacteria, pumped out and composted. 2. A constructed wetland at Open Grounds Farm, near Beaufort, Northern Cape, designed to reduce the amount of nutrients and sediments entering the headwaters of the South River, a tributary of the Neuse River. 3. A pumping barge is used to remove harmful cyanobacteria from Dianchi Lake, China. 4. Aluminium sulfate and sodium aluminate are pumped to combat phosphorus loading and harmful cyanobacterial blooms. 5. A dredging operation in Lake Roaming Rock, Ohio, to remove nutrient-rich sediments. 6. A riparian buffer along Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa, designed to filter runoff of nutrients and sediments from adjacent farmland. 7. LG Sonic, MPC-Buoy using ultrasound waves to control algae. 8. SolarBee solar water circulator, used to reduce surface algae blooms in Santuit Pond in Mashpee, Massachusetts. 9. Phoslock is applied to Laguna Niguel Lake, to bind and remove phosphorus from the water column. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 99 ANNEXURE L: THUKELA RIVER ABSTRACTION WORKS IN MIDDLEDRIFT, MADUNGELA WHERE VORTEX SETTLING BASIN (VSB) DEMONSTRATION IS APPLIED Figure 16: Thukela River abstraction works in Middledrift, Madungela where Vortex Settling Basin (VSB) demonstration is applied Source: WRC, 2025 ANNEXURE M: KHARKAMS RECHARGE SCHEME LAYOUT WITH SAND FILTER – RIVER SAND IS SIEVED FOR THE FILTER. Figure 17: Kharkams Recharge Scheme layout with sand filter – river sand is sieved for the filter Source: Braune and Sumaya, 2021 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 100 ANNEXURE N: BOREHOLE INJECTION TESTING AT LANGEBAAN ROAD AQUIFER. Figure 18: Borehole injection testing at Langebaan Road Aquifer Source: Braune and Sumaya, 2021 Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 101 ANNEXURE O: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE EXISTING WATER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS FOR GREATER PLETTENBERG BAY. Figure 19: Schematic diagram of the existing water supply arrangements for greater Plettenberg Bay Source: Braune and Sumaya, 2021 ANNEXURE P: ATLANTIS MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE SCHEME. Figure 20: Atlantis Managed Aquifer Recharge Scheme Source: Braune and Sumaya, 2021. Rehabilitation Management Guidelines in Practice SDS Report No.: RDM/RMG/00/IHP/SDS/0425 102 ANNEXURE Q: AN EXAMPLE OF A DATA-GATHERING TEMPLATE. Table 10: An example of a data-gathering template. Activity Objective Project location Monitored by Monitoring Phase Date Observations/notes Issues Identified Actions Taken/recommendations Before Rehabilitation During Rehabilitation After Rehabilitation

Draft Rehabilitation Management Guidelines (RMGs)

Generate AI Analysis

Read the official documentThe full source text, supporting attachments, and links to the Gazette and department — the record this analysis is based on.

Read the official document